Analyzing the Mathematical Impact of Vaccination in Mitigating Rift Valley Fever Spread among Livestock
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43-68
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Jul 16, 2024
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10.58578/ajstm.v1i1.3361
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Authors:Olopade I. A1, Akinwumi T. O2, Ajao S. O3, Mohammed I. T4, Sangoniyi S. O5, Adeniran G. A6, Bello B. O7, Adewale S. O8
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Abstract
The persistence mechanisms of Rift Valley fever (RVF), a zoonotic arboviral hemorrhagic fever, are not fully understood and need thorough quantification at both local and broader geographical scales. Rift Valley Fever (RVF) is a viral zoonosis primarily transmitted by mosquitoes, predominantly affecting livestock with the potential to impact humans. The virus has the capacity for rapid spread, posing a potential epidemic threat to both human and the livestock. The transmission dynamics of Rift Valley Fever (RVF) involving mosquitoes and livestock are investigated and analyzed through a compartmental model, with vaccination considered as a control measure. The basic reproduction number ( ) is calculated using the next-generation matrix, indicating that the disease-free equilibrium state is locally asymptotically stable when ( ). This suggests that Rift Valley Fever could be controlled in a livestock population where the reproduction number is below 1, but it becomes endemic when ( ). Sensitivity analysis identifies key parameters for consideration by livestock policy makers and veterinary workers. Numerical simulations offer insightful results to delve deeper into the disease dynamics, considering the efficacy of vaccination and other control measures introduced in the model.
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A, O. I., O, A. T., O, A. S., T, M. I., O, S. S., A, A. G., O, B. B., & O, A. S. (2024). Analyzing the Mathematical Impact of Vaccination in Mitigating Rift Valley Fever Spread among Livestock. African Journal of Sciences and Traditional Medicine, 1(1), 43-68. https://doi.org/10.58578/ajstm.v1i1.3361
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
References
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Adewale SO, Olopade IA, Adeniran GA., & Ajao SO. (2015a). Mathematical Modelling and Sensitivity Analysis of HIV-TB Co-infection. Journal of Advances in Mathematic. 11(8):5494-5519.
Adewale SO, Olopade IA, Adeniran GA, Mohammed IT, & Ajao SO. (2015b). Mathematical Analysis of Effects of Isolation on Ebola Transmission Dynamics. Researchjournali’s Journal of Mathematics. 2(2):1-20.
Adewale SO, Olopade IA, Ajao SO, & Adeniran GA. (2015c). Mathematical Analysis of Diarrhea in the Presence of Vaccine”. International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research. 6(12):396-404.
Adewale SO, Olopade IA, Ajao SO, & Mohammed IT. (2016). Mathematical Analysis of Sensitive Parameters on the Dynamical Spread of HIV. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology. 5(5): 2624- 2635.
Adeyeye PS, Ekong NN, & Pilau T. (2011). Rift valley fever: the Nigerian story. Veterinaria Italiana. 47(1):35–40.
Ajao SO, Olopade IA, Akinwumi TO, Adewale SO, & Adesanya AO. (2023). Understanding the Transmission Dynamics and Control of HIV Infection: A Mathematical Model Approach. Journal of the Nigerian Society of Physical Sciences. 5(2): 1389.
Akinwumi TO, Olopade IA, Adesanya AO, & Alabi MO. (2021). Mathematical Model for the Transmission of HIV/AIDS with Early Treatment. Journal of Advances in Mathematics and Computer Science, 36(5): 35-51.
Bird BH & McElroy AK. (2016), Rift Valley fever virus: unanswered questions. Antiviral Res. 132: 274–280.
Bird BH, Ksiazek TG, Nichol ST, & Maclachlan NJ. (2009). Rift Valley fever virus. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 234(7): 883-893.
Chamchod F, Cosner C, Cantrell RS, Beier JC, & Ruan S. (2016). Transmission Dynamics of Rift Valley Fever Virus: Effects of Live and Killed Vaccines on Epizootic Outbreaks and Enzootic Maintenance, Frontiers in Microbiology. 6: 15-68. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.01568.
Chitnis N, Hyman JM, & Manore CA. (2013). Modelling vertical transmission in vector-borne diseases with applications to Rift Valley fever, Journal of Biological Dynamics. 7(1): 11–40. DOI: 10.1080/17513758.2012.733427.
Evans F, Gakuya JT, Paweska M, Rostal L, Akoolo PJ, Van VT, Manyibe JM, Macharia TG, Ksiazek DR, Feikin RF, & Kariuki N. (2008). Preval__ence of antibodies against Rift Valley fever virus in Kenyan wildlife. Epidemiology and Infection. 136(9): 1261–1269. DOI: 10.1017/S0950268807009806.
Fawzy M, & Helmy YA. (2019). The One Health Approach is Necessary for the Control of Rift Valley Fever Infections in Egypt. A Comprehensive Review Viruses. 11(2), DOI: 10.3390/v11020139
Fischer EA, Boender GJ, Nodelijk G, De Koeijer AA, & Van Roermund HJ. (2013). The transmission potential of Rift Valley fever virus among livestock in the Netherlands: a modelling study. Veterinary Research. 44(1) :44-58. DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716.
Gachohi JM, Njenga MK, Kitala P, & Bett B. (2016). Modelling Vaccination Strategies against Rift Valley Fever in Livestock in Kenya. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 10(12): 05-49. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005049.
Gaff H, Burgess C, Jackson J, Niu T, Papelis Y, & Hartley D. (2011). Mathematical model to assess the relative effectiveness of Rift Valley fever counter-measures. Int. J. Artif. Life Res. 2(2): 1–18.
Iacono GL, Cunningham AA, Bett B, Grace D, Redding DW, & Wood JL. (2018). Environmental limits of Rift Valley fever revealed using eco-epidemiological mechanistic models. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115(31): 7448–7456. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1803264115.
Jupp PG, Kemp A, Grobbelaar A, Leman P. Burt FJ, Alahmed AM, Mujalli D, Khamees M, & Swanepoel R. (2002). The 2000 epidemic of Rift Valley fever in Saudi Arabia: Mosquito vector studies. Med. Vet. Entomol. 16(3): 245–252.
Kanouté YB, Gragnon BG, Schindler C, Bonfoh B, & Schelling E. (2017). Epidemiology of brucellosis, Q Fever and Rift Valley Fever at the human and livestock interface in northern Côte d’Ivoire. Acta Tropica. 165: 66–75. DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2016.02.012
Kasari TR, Carr DA, Lynn TV, & Weaver JT. (2008). eval__uation of pathways for release of Rift Valley fever virus into domestic ruminant livestock, ruminant wildlife, and human populations in the continental United States. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 232(4): 514–529.
Marion E, Hayden MH, Sun J. (2018). Predictive environmental risk factors for Rift Valley fever epidemics in Nigeria. BMC Infect Dis. 18(1): 305.
Mehmood Q, Irfan M, Ogunkola IO, Jaguga F, & Ullah I. (2021). Rift valley fever and Covid-19 outbreak in kenya: a double whammy, Ethics. Medicine and Public Health. 19, 06-85. DOI: 10.1016/j.jemep.2021.100685.
Métras R, Edmunds WJ, Youssouffi C, Dommergues L, Fournié G, Camacho A, Funk S, Cardinale E, Le Godais G, Combo S, Filleul L, Youssouf H, & Subiros M. (2020). Estimation of Rift Valley fever virus spillover to humans during the Mayotte 2018–2019 epidemic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117(39). 24567–24574. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2004468117
Métras R, Fournié G, Dommergues L, Camacho A, Cavalerie L, Mérot P, Keeling MJ, Cêtre-Sossah C, Cardinale E, & Edmunds WJ. (2017). Drivers for Rift Valley fever emergence in Mayotte: A Bayesian modelling approach. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 11(7) 57-67. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005767.
Mpeshe H, Haario, & Tchuenche JM. (2011). A Mathematical Model of Rift Valley Fever with Human Host. Acta Biotheoretica.59(3-4): 231–250. DOI: 10.1007/s10441-011-9132-2.
Musibau OO, Muritala AA, Isaac AO, Adelani OA, & Akeem OY. (2022). Mathematical analysis of sensitive parameters due to dynamic transmission of Ebola virus disease. Comprehensive Research and Reviews in Multidisciplinary Studies. 01(01): 001–016.
Nielsen SS, (2021). Scientific Opinion on the assessment of the control measures of the category A diseases of Animal Health Law: Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza. EFSA Journal. 19(1). DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6372.
Oguntolu FA, Yavalah DW, Udom CF, Peter OJ, Oshinubi K. (2022). Mathematical modelling for the transmission dynamics of Rift Valley fever virus with human host. Jambura Journal of Mathematics. 3(1): 17-22. https://doi.org/10.34312/jjbm.v3i1.14160
Olopade IA, Adesanya AO, & Akinwumi TO. (20121a). Mathematical Transmission of SEIR Epidemic Model with Natural Immunity. Asian Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics; 3(1):19-29.
Olopade IA, Adesanya AO & Mohammed IT. (2017). Mathematical Analysis of the Global Dynamics of an SVEIR Epidemic Model with Herd Immunity. International Journal of Science and Engineering Investigations. (IJSEI) 6(69):141-148.
Olopade IA, Ajao SO, Adeniran GA, Adamu AK, Adewale SO, & Aderele OR. (2022). Mathematical Transmission of Tuberculosis (TB) with Detection of Infected Undetectected. Asian Journal of Research in Medicine and Medical Sciences. 4(1): 100- 119.
Olopade IA, Adewale SO, Mohammed IT, Adeniran GA, Ajao SO & Ogunsola AW. (2021b). Effect of Effective Contact Tracing in Curtaining the Spread of Covid-19. Asian Journal of Research in Biosciences. 3(2):118-134.
Olopade IA, Adewale SO, Mohammed IT, Ajao SO, & Oyedemi OT. (2016). Mathematical Analysis of the Role of Detection in the Dynamical Spread of HIV-TB Co-infection. Journal of Advances in Mathematics. 11(10): 5715-5740.
Pedro SA, Abelman S, & Tonnang HEZ. (2016). Predicting Rift Valley Fever Inter-epidemic Activities and Outbreak Patterns: Insights from a Stochastic Host-Vector Model. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases.10(12):51-67. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005167
Pedro SA, Abelman S, Ndjomatchoua FT, Sang R. & Tonnang HEZ. (2014). Stability, Bifurcation and Chaos Analysis of Vector-Borne Disease Model with Application to Rift Valley Fever. PLOS ONE. 9(10): 108-172, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.010817.
Pépin M, Bouloy M, Bird BH, Kemp A, & Paweska J. (2010). Rift Valley fever virus (Bunyaviridae: Phlebovirus): An update on pathogenesis, molecular epidemiology, vectors , diagnostics and prevention. Vet. Res. 41: 61-72.
Philemon ME, Olopade IA, & Ogbaji EO. (2023). Mathematical Analysis of the Effect of Quarantine on the Dynamical Transmission of Monkey-Pox. Asian Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics. 5(1): 473–492. Retrieved from https://globalpresshub.com/index._php/AJPAM/article/view/1894
Tennant WSD, Cardinale E, Cêtre-Sossah C, Moutroifi Y, Le Godais G, Colombi D, Spencer SEF, Tildesley MJ, Keeling MJ, Charafouddine O, Colizza V, Edmunds WJ & Métras R. 2021. Modelling the persistence and control of Rift Valley fever virus in a spatially heterogeneous landscape. Nature Communications. 12(1): 55-93 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-25833-8
Uwishema O, Chalhoub E, Torbati T, David SC, Khoury C, Ribeiro Y, Nasrallah LPA, Bekele BK, & Onyeaka H. (2022). Rift Valley fever during the COVID–19 pandemic in Africa: A double burden for Africa’s healthcare system. Health Science Reports. 5(1). DOI: 10.1002/hsr2.468
World Health Organization. Rift Valley fever. Accessed December 1, (2023) https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/rift-valley-fever..
Xiao Y, Beier JC, Cantrell RS, Cosner C, DeAngelis DL & Ruan S. (2015). Modelling the Effects of Seasonality and Socioeconomic Impact on the Transmission of Rift Valley Fever Virus. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 9(1): e3388. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003388
Adesanya, A.O., Olopade, I.A., Akinwumi, T.O., and Adesanya, A.A., (2016b). Mathematical Analysis of Early Treatment of Gonorrhea Infection. American International Journal of Research in Science, Technology, Engineering & Mathematics, 15(2).
Adesola, O.I., Oloruntoyin, S.S., Emmanuel, P.M., Temilade, M.I., Adeyemi, A.G., Oladele, A.S., Mamman, A.U., and Kareem, A.A., (2024a). Mathematical Modelling and Analyzing the Dynamics of Condom Efficacy and Compliance in the Spread of HIV/AIDS. Asian Research Journal of Current Science. 6(1), pp. 54–65.
Adesola, O.I., Temilade, M.I., Emmanuel, P.M., Oladele, A.S., Adeyemi, A.G., Sunday, S., and Olumuyiwa, A.S., (2024b). Mathematical Analysis of Optimal Control of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Co-infection with Tuberculosis (TB). Asian Research Journal of Current Science, 6(1), pp, 23–53.
Adewale SO, Olopade IA, Adeniran GA., & Ajao SO. (2015a). Mathematical Modelling and Sensitivity Analysis of HIV-TB Co-infection. Journal of Advances in Mathematic. 11(8):5494-5519.
Adewale SO, Olopade IA, Adeniran GA, Mohammed IT, & Ajao SO. (2015b). Mathematical Analysis of Effects of Isolation on Ebola Transmission Dynamics. Researchjournali’s Journal of Mathematics. 2(2):1-20.
Adewale SO, Olopade IA, Ajao SO, & Adeniran GA. (2015c). Mathematical Analysis of Diarrhea in the Presence of Vaccine”. International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research. 6(12):396-404.
Adewale SO, Olopade IA, Ajao SO, & Mohammed IT. (2016). Mathematical Analysis of Sensitive Parameters on the Dynamical Spread of HIV. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology. 5(5): 2624- 2635.
Adeyeye PS, Ekong NN, & Pilau T. (2011). Rift valley fever: the Nigerian story. Veterinaria Italiana. 47(1):35–40.
Ajao SO, Olopade IA, Akinwumi TO, Adewale SO, & Adesanya AO. (2023). Understanding the Transmission Dynamics and Control of HIV Infection: A Mathematical Model Approach. Journal of the Nigerian Society of Physical Sciences. 5(2): 1389.
Akinwumi TO, Olopade IA, Adesanya AO, & Alabi MO. (2021). Mathematical Model for the Transmission of HIV/AIDS with Early Treatment. Journal of Advances in Mathematics and Computer Science, 36(5): 35-51.
Bird BH & McElroy AK. (2016), Rift Valley fever virus: unanswered questions. Antiviral Res. 132: 274–280.
Bird BH, Ksiazek TG, Nichol ST, & Maclachlan NJ. (2009). Rift Valley fever virus. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 234(7): 883-893.
Chamchod F, Cosner C, Cantrell RS, Beier JC, & Ruan S. (2016). Transmission Dynamics of Rift Valley Fever Virus: Effects of Live and Killed Vaccines on Epizootic Outbreaks and Enzootic Maintenance, Frontiers in Microbiology. 6: 15-68. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.01568.
Chitnis N, Hyman JM, & Manore CA. (2013). Modelling vertical transmission in vector-borne diseases with applications to Rift Valley fever, Journal of Biological Dynamics. 7(1): 11–40. DOI: 10.1080/17513758.2012.733427.
Evans F, Gakuya JT, Paweska M, Rostal L, Akoolo PJ, Van VT, Manyibe JM, Macharia TG, Ksiazek DR, Feikin RF, & Kariuki N. (2008). Preval__ence of antibodies against Rift Valley fever virus in Kenyan wildlife. Epidemiology and Infection. 136(9): 1261–1269. DOI: 10.1017/S0950268807009806.
Fawzy M, & Helmy YA. (2019). The One Health Approach is Necessary for the Control of Rift Valley Fever Infections in Egypt. A Comprehensive Review Viruses. 11(2), DOI: 10.3390/v11020139
Fischer EA, Boender GJ, Nodelijk G, De Koeijer AA, & Van Roermund HJ. (2013). The transmission potential of Rift Valley fever virus among livestock in the Netherlands: a modelling study. Veterinary Research. 44(1) :44-58. DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716.
Gachohi JM, Njenga MK, Kitala P, & Bett B. (2016). Modelling Vaccination Strategies against Rift Valley Fever in Livestock in Kenya. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 10(12): 05-49. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005049.
Gaff H, Burgess C, Jackson J, Niu T, Papelis Y, & Hartley D. (2011). Mathematical model to assess the relative effectiveness of Rift Valley fever counter-measures. Int. J. Artif. Life Res. 2(2): 1–18.
Iacono GL, Cunningham AA, Bett B, Grace D, Redding DW, & Wood JL. (2018). Environmental limits of Rift Valley fever revealed using eco-epidemiological mechanistic models. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115(31): 7448–7456. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1803264115.
Jupp PG, Kemp A, Grobbelaar A, Leman P. Burt FJ, Alahmed AM, Mujalli D, Khamees M, & Swanepoel R. (2002). The 2000 epidemic of Rift Valley fever in Saudi Arabia: Mosquito vector studies. Med. Vet. Entomol. 16(3): 245–252.
Kanouté YB, Gragnon BG, Schindler C, Bonfoh B, & Schelling E. (2017). Epidemiology of brucellosis, Q Fever and Rift Valley Fever at the human and livestock interface in northern Côte d’Ivoire. Acta Tropica. 165: 66–75. DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2016.02.012
Kasari TR, Carr DA, Lynn TV, & Weaver JT. (2008). eval__uation of pathways for release of Rift Valley fever virus into domestic ruminant livestock, ruminant wildlife, and human populations in the continental United States. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 232(4): 514–529.
Marion E, Hayden MH, Sun J. (2018). Predictive environmental risk factors for Rift Valley fever epidemics in Nigeria. BMC Infect Dis. 18(1): 305.
Mehmood Q, Irfan M, Ogunkola IO, Jaguga F, & Ullah I. (2021). Rift valley fever and Covid-19 outbreak in kenya: a double whammy, Ethics. Medicine and Public Health. 19, 06-85. DOI: 10.1016/j.jemep.2021.100685.
Métras R, Edmunds WJ, Youssouffi C, Dommergues L, Fournié G, Camacho A, Funk S, Cardinale E, Le Godais G, Combo S, Filleul L, Youssouf H, & Subiros M. (2020). Estimation of Rift Valley fever virus spillover to humans during the Mayotte 2018–2019 epidemic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117(39). 24567–24574. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2004468117
Métras R, Fournié G, Dommergues L, Camacho A, Cavalerie L, Mérot P, Keeling MJ, Cêtre-Sossah C, Cardinale E, & Edmunds WJ. (2017). Drivers for Rift Valley fever emergence in Mayotte: A Bayesian modelling approach. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 11(7) 57-67. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005767.
Mpeshe H, Haario, & Tchuenche JM. (2011). A Mathematical Model of Rift Valley Fever with Human Host. Acta Biotheoretica.59(3-4): 231–250. DOI: 10.1007/s10441-011-9132-2.
Musibau OO, Muritala AA, Isaac AO, Adelani OA, & Akeem OY. (2022). Mathematical analysis of sensitive parameters due to dynamic transmission of Ebola virus disease. Comprehensive Research and Reviews in Multidisciplinary Studies. 01(01): 001–016.
Nielsen SS, (2021). Scientific Opinion on the assessment of the control measures of the category A diseases of Animal Health Law: Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza. EFSA Journal. 19(1). DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6372.
Oguntolu FA, Yavalah DW, Udom CF, Peter OJ, Oshinubi K. (2022). Mathematical modelling for the transmission dynamics of Rift Valley fever virus with human host. Jambura Journal of Mathematics. 3(1): 17-22. https://doi.org/10.34312/jjbm.v3i1.14160
Olopade IA, Adesanya AO, & Akinwumi TO. (20121a). Mathematical Transmission of SEIR Epidemic Model with Natural Immunity. Asian Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics; 3(1):19-29.
Olopade IA, Adesanya AO & Mohammed IT. (2017). Mathematical Analysis of the Global Dynamics of an SVEIR Epidemic Model with Herd Immunity. International Journal of Science and Engineering Investigations. (IJSEI) 6(69):141-148.
Olopade IA, Ajao SO, Adeniran GA, Adamu AK, Adewale SO, & Aderele OR. (2022). Mathematical Transmission of Tuberculosis (TB) with Detection of Infected Undetectected. Asian Journal of Research in Medicine and Medical Sciences. 4(1): 100- 119.
Olopade IA, Adewale SO, Mohammed IT, Adeniran GA, Ajao SO & Ogunsola AW. (2021b). Effect of Effective Contact Tracing in Curtaining the Spread of Covid-19. Asian Journal of Research in Biosciences. 3(2):118-134.
Olopade IA, Adewale SO, Mohammed IT, Ajao SO, & Oyedemi OT. (2016). Mathematical Analysis of the Role of Detection in the Dynamical Spread of HIV-TB Co-infection. Journal of Advances in Mathematics. 11(10): 5715-5740.
Pedro SA, Abelman S, & Tonnang HEZ. (2016). Predicting Rift Valley Fever Inter-epidemic Activities and Outbreak Patterns: Insights from a Stochastic Host-Vector Model. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases.10(12):51-67. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005167
Pedro SA, Abelman S, Ndjomatchoua FT, Sang R. & Tonnang HEZ. (2014). Stability, Bifurcation and Chaos Analysis of Vector-Borne Disease Model with Application to Rift Valley Fever. PLOS ONE. 9(10): 108-172, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.010817.
Pépin M, Bouloy M, Bird BH, Kemp A, & Paweska J. (2010). Rift Valley fever virus (Bunyaviridae: Phlebovirus): An update on pathogenesis, molecular epidemiology, vectors , diagnostics and prevention. Vet. Res. 41: 61-72.
Philemon ME, Olopade IA, & Ogbaji EO. (2023). Mathematical Analysis of the Effect of Quarantine on the Dynamical Transmission of Monkey-Pox. Asian Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics. 5(1): 473–492. Retrieved from https://globalpresshub.com/index._php/AJPAM/article/view/1894
Tennant WSD, Cardinale E, Cêtre-Sossah C, Moutroifi Y, Le Godais G, Colombi D, Spencer SEF, Tildesley MJ, Keeling MJ, Charafouddine O, Colizza V, Edmunds WJ & Métras R. 2021. Modelling the persistence and control of Rift Valley fever virus in a spatially heterogeneous landscape. Nature Communications. 12(1): 55-93 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-25833-8
Uwishema O, Chalhoub E, Torbati T, David SC, Khoury C, Ribeiro Y, Nasrallah LPA, Bekele BK, & Onyeaka H. (2022). Rift Valley fever during the COVID–19 pandemic in Africa: A double burden for Africa’s healthcare system. Health Science Reports. 5(1). DOI: 10.1002/hsr2.468
World Health Organization. Rift Valley fever. Accessed December 1, (2023) https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/rift-valley-fever..
Xiao Y, Beier JC, Cantrell RS, Cosner C, DeAngelis DL & Ruan S. (2015). Modelling the Effects of Seasonality and Socioeconomic Impact on the Transmission of Rift Valley Fever Virus. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 9(1): e3388. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003388