Gashaka Gumti National Park Tourism Development and Biodiversity Conservation

Page Numbers: 75-111
Published
2024-05-31
Digital Object Identifier: 10.58578/ijecs.v2i2.3112
Save this to:
Article Metrics:
Viewed : 54 times
Downloaded : 21 times
Article can trace at:

Author Fee:
Free Publication Fees for Foreign Researchers (0.00)

Please do not hesitate to contact us if you would like to obtain more information about the submission process or if you have further questions.




  • Kanati Madaki Federal University Wukari Taraba State, Nigeria
  • Isaac John Umaru Federal University Wukari Taraba State, Nigeria
  • Kerenhapucch Isaac Umaru University of Higher Institute Buea, South West Cameroon, Cameroon

Abstract

Tourist activities in host environments often create land use problems, such as infrastructure development, and damage to ecosystems and habitats. These disturbances can lead to the disruption of wildlife species, affecting their normal behavior, increasing mortality, and reducing reproductive success. Despite these challenges, the direct benefits of tourism development to the local community are substantial. The study found that 76.06% of locals engaged in merchandise sales, 77.66% gained employment through park development, and 52.6% participated in tourism-related activities. Additionally, the indirect benefits of tourism development to the local community include increased security, improved wildlife conservation, enhanced infrastructure development, employment opportunities, and increased wildlife knowledge, with an average significance ranging from 26% to 45%. In conclusion, tourism development and biodiversity conservation contribute significantly to development, knowledge, employment, and awareness within the local community and the country at large.

Keywords: Tourism Development; Local Community Benefits; Biodiversity Conservation; Ecosystem Impact; Employment; Wildlife Conservation

Citation Metrics:






Downloads

Download data is not yet available.
How to Cite
Madaki, K., Umaru, I. J., & Umaru, K. I. (2024). Gashaka Gumti National Park Tourism Development and Biodiversity Conservation. International Journal of Education, Culture, and Society, 2(2), 75-111. https://doi.org/10.58578/ijecs.v2i2.3112

References

Africa, F. A. R. M. (2008). Bale mountains eco-region sustainable development plan: report phase I and II planning workshops. FARM AfricA.
Ahmadpour, B. M., Mosapour, S., Keykha, A. A., & Sasouli, M. R. (2017). Willingness to participation of local communities in the conservation of National Parks. International Journal of Human Capital in Urban Management, 2(1), 69-76.
Ahmed, Y. M., & Oruonye, E. D. (2017). Challenges of enforcement of forestry legislation in Taraba State, Nigeria. International Journal of Geography and Geology, 6(3), 48-57.
Aliyu, A. A., Bello, M. U., Kasim, R., & Martin, D. (2014). Positivist and non-positivist paradigm in social science research: Conflicting paradigms or perfect partners. Journal of Management & Sustainability, 4(3), 79-95.
Aswani, S., & Weiant, P. (2004). Scientific evaluation in women’s participatory management: monitoring marine invertebrate refugia in the Solomon Islands. Human Organization, 63(3), 301-319.
Ayodele, J. T., & Abubakkar, M. B. (2001). Trace metal levels in Tiga lake, Kano, Nigeria. Tropical Environmental Resources, 3(2), 230-237.
Bagherian, R., Samah, B., Samah, A. A., & Ahmad, S. (2009). Factors influencing local people's participation in watershed management programs in Iran. American-Eurasian Journal of Agriculture. & Environmental. Science, 6(5), 532-538.
Beaver, A. (2002). A dictionary of travel and tourism terminology (2nd Eds.). CAB International.
Berhanu, K., & Teshome, E. (2021). Opportunities and challenges for wildlife conservation: The case of Alatish National Park, Northwest Ethiopia. 7. 1-13.
Borazjani, A. M., Mosapour, S., Keykha, A. A., & Sasouli, M. R. (2017). Willingness to participation of local communities in the conservation of National Parks. International Journal of Human Capital in Urban Management, 2(1), 69-76.
Borrini-Feyerabend, G., Dudley, N., Jeger, T., Lassen, B., Pathak Broome, N., Phillips, A. and Sandwith, T. (2013). Governance of Protected Areas – from understanding to action. Best Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series No. 20. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN
Bradshaw, C. J., Bowman, D. M., Bond, N. R., Murphy, B. P., Moore, A. D., Fordham, D. A., & Dalal, R. C. (2013). Brave new green world–consequences of a carbon economy for the conservation of Australian biodiversity. Biological Conservation, 161(2), 71-90.
Brancelj, A. N. T. O. N., Sisko, M., Brancelj, I. R., Jeran, Z., & Jacimovic, R. (2000). Effects of land use and fish stocking on a mountain lake-evidence from the sediment. Periodicum biologorum, 102(3), 259-268.
Bryman, A., & Cramer, D. (2006). Quantitative data analysis for the social scientist with SPSS, 12 & 16. Routledge.
Buckley, R. C. (2004). Environmental Impacts of Ecotourism. Journal of Ecotourism, 4(1), 56-71.
Buckley, R. C., & King, N. (2004). Visitor-impact data in a land management context. In R. Buckley, C. Pickering, & D. Weaver (Eds.), Nature-based tourism, environment, and land management. CAB International.
Buscher, B., & Ramutsindela, M. (2016). Green violence: Rhino poaching and the war to save Southern Africa's peace parks. African Affairs, 115(458), 1-22.
Butler, R. (2015). Sustainable tourism: Paradoxes, inconsistencies and a way forward. The practice of sustainable tourism: Resolving the paradox, 66-79.
Butler, R. W. (1999). Sustainable tourism: A state‐of‐the‐art review. Tourism Geographies, 1(1), 7-25.
Butler, R. W. (1999). Sustainable tourism: A state‐of‐the‐art review. Tourism geographies, 1(1), 7-25.
Cater, E. (1995). Environmental contradictions in sustainable tourism. The Geographical Journal, 161(1), 21-28.
Chok, S., Macbeth, J., & Warren, C. (2007). Tourism as a tool for poverty alleviation: A critical analysis of ‘pro-poor tourism ‘and implications for sustainability. Current Issues in Tourism, 10(2-3), 144-165.
Coccossis, H. (2016). Sustainable development and tourism: Opportunities and threats to cultural heritage from tourism. In Cultural tourism and sustainable local development (pp. 65-74). Routledge.
Colchester, M. (2003). Indigenous peoples and protected areas: Rights, principles, and practice. Nomadic Peoples, 7(1), 33-51.
Convention on Biological Diversity. (2014). Pathways of introduction of invasive species, their prioritization and management (https://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/sbstta/sbstta-18/official/sbstta-18-09-add1-en.pdf)
Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2011). Qualitative research. Business Research Methods, 4(1), 160-182.
Cramer, J. S. (2002). The origins of logistic regression. Tinbergen Institute Working Paper No. 2002-119/4, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=360300 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.360300.
Crick, M. (1989). Representations of international tourism in the social sciences: Sun, sex, sights, savings, and servility. Annual Review of Anthropology, 18(6), 307-344.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrica, 16(3), 297-334.
Cumming, G. S., Allen, C. R., Ban, N. C., Biggs, D., Biggs, H. C., Cumming, D. H., & Mathevet, R. (2015). Understanding protected area resilience: a multi‐scale, social‐ecological approach. Ecological Applications, 25(2), 299-319.
Curran, L. M., Trigg, S. N., McDonald, A. K., Astiani, D., Hardiono, Y. M., Siregar, P., & Kasischke, E. (2004). Lowland forest loss in protected areas of Indonesian Borneo. Science, 303(5660), 1000-1003.
Daim, M. S., Bakri, A. F., Kamarudin, H., & Zakaria, S. A. (2012). Being neighbor to a national park: Are we ready for community participation?. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 36, 211-220.
Daniels, K., Johnson, G., & De Chernatony, L. (2002). Task and institutional influences on managers' mental models of competition. Organization studies, 23(1), 31-62.
Dasmann, R. F. (1968). A different kind of country. Macmillan Company.
Davies, R. (1997). Madikwe Game Reserve: A partnership in conservation. Madikwe Development Series No. 6. North West Parks Board.
de Melo, R. S., da Silva, O. C., Souto, A., Alves, R. R. N., & Schiel, N. (2014). The role of mammals in local communities living in conservation areas in the Northeast of Brazil: an ethnozoological approach. Tropical Conservation Science, 7(3), 423-439.
DeFries, R., Hansen, A., Turner, B. L., Reid, R., & Liu, J. (2007). Land uses change around protected areas: Management to balance human needs and ecological function. Ecological Applications, 17(4), 1031-1038.
Demeke A, & Verma A (2013). Ecotourism for environmental conservation and community livelihoods, the case of the Bale Mountain National Park, Ethiopia. Journal of Environmental Science Water, 2(8), 250-259.
Díaz, S., Fargione, J., Chapin III, F. S., & Tilman, D. (2006). Biodiversity loss threatens human well-being. PLoS Biology, 4(8), e277.
Dishan, E. E., Agishi, R., & Akosim, C. (2010). Women's Involvement in Non Timber Forest Products Utilization in Support Zones of Gashaka Gumti National Park. Journal of Research in Forestry, Wildlife and Environment, 2(1), 73-84.
Dongier, P., Van Domelen, J., Ostrom, E., Ryan, A., Wakeman, W., Bebbington, A., & Polski, M. (2003). Community driven development: World Bank Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, (1). World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 2003(3209).
Duckworth, Moore, D., McCabe, G., Duckworth, W., & Alwan, L. (2008). The practice of business statistics. W. H. Freeman and Company.
Dudley, A. M., Rougeulle, C., & Winston, F. (1999). The Spt components of SAGA facilitate TBP binding to a promoter at a post-activator-binding step in vivo. Genes & Development, 13(22), 2940-2945.
Dudley, E. S., Schiml, P. A., & Hennessy, M. B. (2015). Effects of repeated petting sessions on leukocyte counts, intestinal parasite prevalence, and plasma cortisol concentration of dogs housed in a county animal shelter. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 247(11), 1289-1298.
Dudley, N. (Ed) (2008). IUCN Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
Dudley, N., & Stolton, S. (2008). Defining protected areas. An international conference in Almeria, Spain. IUCN.
Dudley, N., Lham, D., Stolton, S., Wangchuk, S. & S. Wangchuk. (2016). Bhutan Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool Plus. Final Version 2016. Thimphu, Bhutan: Wildlife Conservation Division and Bristol, UK: Equilibrium Research.
Dudley, N., Stolton, S., and Elliott W. (2013). Wildlife crime poses unique challenges to protected areas. PARKS, 19(1), 7–12.
Duffy, R., St John, F. A., Büscher, B., & Brockington, D. A. N. (2014). The militarization of anti-poaching: Undermining long-term goals? Environmental Conservation, 42(4), 345-348.
Effiom, E. O., Nuñez-Iturri, G., Smith, H. G., Ottosson, U., & Olsson, O. (2013). Bushmeat hunting changes regeneration of African rainforests. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 280(1759), 20130246.
Ehrlich, P., & Ehrlich, A. (1981). Extinction: The causes and consequences of the disappearance of species. Random House.
Eldredge N (1995) Dominion. Holt and Co., New York
Eltringham, S. K. (1984). Wildlife resources and economic development. Wiley.
Emerton, L. (1997). Livelihood values and conservation in Mount Kenya Forest. Earthwatch conference on African rainforests and the conservation of biodiversity. Limbe, Southwest Cameroon.
Emma-Okafor, L. C., Ibeawuchi, I. I., & Obiefuna, J. C. (2009). Biodiversity conservation for sustainable agriculture in tropical rainforest of Nigeria. New York Science Journal, 2(7), 81-88.
Ervin, J. (2003). Rapid assessment of protected area management effectiveness in four countries. Biology Science, 53(9), 833-841.
Eshun, G. (2014). Towards the dual mandate of ecotourism in Africa-comparative evidence from Ghana. Africa insight, 44(3), 164-184.
Estes, J. A., Terborgh, J., Brashares, J. S., Power, M. E., Berger, J., Bond, W. J, Carpenter, S. R, Essington, T. E, Holt, R. D, Jackson, J. B. C, Marquis, R. J., Oksanen, L., Oksanen, T., Paine R. T., Pikitch, E. K, Ripple, W. J, Sandin, S. A, Scheffer, M., Schoener, T. W, Shurin, J. B., Sinclair, A. R. E., Soule, M. E, Virtanen, R., Wardle, D. A. (2012). Trophic downgrading of planet earth. Science, 333(3), 301–306.
Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute. (2014). Ethiopian’s fifth national report to the conservation biodiversity.
Ethiopian Tree Fund Foundation. (2007). Ethiopian tree fund foundation: Promoting ETFF and tree planting event in the Bale Mountains, Southeast Ethiopia.
Farm Africa, 2008. Bale Mountains Eco-Region Sustainable Development Plan Report on Phase I and II Planning Workshops in Goba, Bale 15-17 September 2008 (Phase I) and 25-26 Novemb 2008
Farm Africa. (2008). Bale mountains eco-region sustainable development plan report on phase i and ii planning workshops in Goba, Bale 15-17 September 2008 (Phase I) and 25-26 Novembe 2008 (Phase II).
Federal Department of Forestry. (2001). Forestry outlook study for Africa. Federal Department of forestry/ FAO.
Fischer, J., & Lindenmayer, D. B. (2007). Landscape modification and habitat fragmentation: A synthesis. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 16(3), 265-280.
Flintan, F. (2008). Women’s empowerment in pastoral societies. UNDP.
Flintan, F., Chibsa, W., Wako, D., Ridgewell, R., Ethiopia, S. S., Africa, F. A. R. M., & Ababa, A. (2008). Livestock and livestock systems in the Bale mountains ecoregion. A report for the Bale ecoregion sustainable management project. SOS Sahel Ethiopia and FARM Africa. Addis Ababa.
Foley, J. A., DeFries, R., Asner, G. P., Barford, C., Bonan, G., Carpenter, S. R., & Helkowski, J. H. (2005). Global consequences of land use. Science, 309(5734), 570-574.
Food and Agriculture Organization. (2001). The state of food and agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization Report, 2001(33), 34-38.
Food and Agriculture Organization. (2009). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2008. FAO.
Fordham, D. A., & Brook, B. W. (2010). Why tropical island endemics are acutely susceptible to global change. Biodiversity and Conservation, 19(2), 329-342.
France, A. (1998). ‘Why should we care?’: Young people, citizenship and questions of social responsibility. Journal of Youth Studies, 1(1), 97-111.
Frey, N., & George, R. (2010). Responsible tourism management: The missing link between business owners' attitudes and behavior in the Cape Town tourism industry. Tourism Management, 31(5), 621-628.
Fritz-Vietta, N. V., Ferguson, H. B., Stoll-Kleemann, S., & Ganzhorn, J. U. (2011). Conservation in a biodiversity hotspot: Insights from cultural and community perspectives in Madagascar. In Biodiversity hotspots (pp. 209-233). Springer.
Fu, B., Wang, K., Lu, Y., Liu, S., Ma, K., Chen, L., and Liu, G. (2004). Entangling the complexity of protected area management: The case of Wolong Biosphere Reserve, southwestern China. Environmental Management, 33(4), 788– 798.
Furze, B., Lacy, T. D., Birckhead, J. (1996). Culture, conservation and biodiversity: The social dimension of linking local level development and conservation through protected areas. John Wiley & Sons.
Gajere, E. N., Ozigis, S. M., Emmanuel, E. A., & Hyelpambuwa, Y. (2013). Spatial analysis of fire disaster and emergency service location in Jos Metropolis. Proceedings of the West Africa Built Envirnoment Research (WABER), 1023-1031.
Garraway, E., Parnell, J., & Lewis, D. S. (2017). Successful community-based conservation: The story of Millbank and Pterourus (Papilio) homerus. Insects, 8(3), 69.
Garraway, E., Parnell, J., Lewis, D. S. (2017). Successful community-based conservation: The story of millbank and Pterourus (Papilio) homerus. Insects, 8(3), 69-81.
Gashaw, T. (2015). Threats of bale mountains National Park and solutions. Journal of Physical Science and Environmental Studies, 1(2), 10-16.
Gatti, R. C., Castaldi, S., Lindsell, J. A., Coomes, D. A., Marchetti, M., Maesano, M., & Valentini, R. (2015). The impact of selective logging and clearcutting on forest structure, tree diversity and above-ground biomass of African tropical forests. Ecological Research, 30(1), 119-132.
Gelcich, S., Edwards-Jones, G. A. R. E. T. H., & Kaiser, M. J. (2005). Importance of attitudinal differences among artisanal fishers toward co-management and conservation of marine resources. Conservation Biology, 19(3), 865-875.
Geldmann, J., Joppa, L. N., & Burgess, N. D. (2014). Mapping change in human pressure globally on land and within protected areas. Conservation Biology, 28(6), 1604-1615.
Hair Jr., J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J. and Anderson, R. E. (2009) Multivariate data analysis (7th Edition). Prentice Hall.
Halpern, M., Senderovich, Y., & Izhaki, I. (2008). Waterfowl—the missing link in epidemic and pandemic cholera dissemination? PLoS pathogens, 4(10), e1000173.
Hamilton, A., Cunningham, A., Byarugaba, D., & Kayanja. (2000). Conservation in a region of political instability: Bwindi impenetrable forest, Uganda. Conservation Biology, 14(6), 1722-1725.
Hansen, A. J., Knight, R. L., Marzluff, J. M., Powell, S., Brown, K., Gude, P. H., & Jones, K. (2005). Effects of exurban development on biodiversity: Patterns, mechanisms, and research needs. Ecological Applications, 15(6), 1893-1905.
Hein, S. G., & Riegel, C. D. (2011). A systematic model for program evaluation and curricular transformation: A tale from the trenches.
Herbert, W., Seliger, H. W., Shohamy, E. G., & Shohamy, E. (1989). Second language research methods. Oxford University Press.
Higham, J. E. (Ed.). (2007). Critical issues in ecotourism: Understanding a complex tourism phenomenon. Routledge.
Higham, J. E., & Bejder, L. (2008). Managing wildlife-based tourism: Edging slowly towards sustainability? Current Issues in Tourism, 11(1), 75-83.
Hochtl, F., Lehringer, S., & Konold, W. (2005). “Wilderness”: What it means when it becomes a reality - A case study from the southwestern Alps. Landscape and Urban Planning, 70(1-2), 85-95.
Isiugo, P. N., & Obioha, E. E. (2015). Understanding theoretical underpinning of wildlife resource-based conflict in Oban Hills, Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 49(1-2), 153-161.
Jallah, C., Amoakoh, A., Boateng, Nortey, Daniel & Assumadu, Ruth. (2017). Community participation in forest management in the Bleih community forest, Nimba county, Liberia. North Asian Research Journal of Multidisciplinary, 3(4), 2454-2326
Jeremy, R., Davidson, P. M., MacIsaac, A., Cameron, J., Mahar, L., & Anderson, I. (2012). Problems, solutions and actions: addressing barriers in acute hospital care for indigenous Australians and New Zealanders. Heart, Lung and Circulation, 21(10), 639-643.
Jimoh, S. O., Ikyaagba, E. T., Alarape, A. A., Obioha, E. E., & Adeyemi, A. A. (2012). The role of traditional laws and taboos in wildlife conservation in the Oban Hill Sector of Cross River National Park (CRNP), Nigeria. Journal of human ecology, 39(3), 209-219.
Johnson, C. N., Balmford, A., Brook, B. W., Buettel, J. C., Galetti, M., Guangchun, L., & Wilmshurst, J. M. (2017). Biodiversity losses and conservation responses in the Anthropocene. Science, 356(6335), 270-275.
Joppa, L. N., Loarie, S. R., & Pimm, S. L. (2008). On the protection of “protected areas”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(18), 6673-6678.
Joppa, L. N., O'Connor, B., Visconti, P., Smith, C., Geldmann, J., Hoffmann, M., & Ahmed, S. E. (2016). Science, 352(6284), 416-418.
Kalron, N., & Crosta, A. (2012). Africa’s white gold of jihad: Al-Shabaab and conflict ivory. Elephant Action League.
Kipkeu, M. L., Mwangi, S. W., & Njogu, J. (2014). Community participation in wildlife conservation in Amboseli Ecosystem, Kenya. Journal of Environmental Science, Taxicology and Food Technology, 8(4), 68-75.
Kleinbaum, D. G., Dietz, K., Gail, M., Klein, M., & Klein, M. (2002). Logistic regression (2nd Eds.). Springer.
Kolahi, M., Sakai, T., Moriya, K., Makhdoum, M. F., & Koyama, L. (2013). Assessment of the effectiveness of protected areas management in Iran: Case study in Khojir National Park. Environmental Management, 52(2), 514-530.
Korkmaz, M., Güney, S., & Yiğiter, Ş. (2012). The importance of logistic regression implementations in the Turkish livestock sector and logistic regression implementations/fields. Harran Tarım ve Gıda Bilimleri Dergisi, 16(2), 25-36.
Kramer, A. T., Ison, J. L., Ashley, M. V., & Howe, H. F. (2008). The paradox of forest fragmentation genetics. Conservation Biology, 22(4), 878-885.
Krüger, O. (2005). The role of ecotourism in conservation: panacea or Pandora’s box?. Biodiversity & Conservation, 14(3), 579-600
Kutner, M. H., Nachtsheim, C. J., Neter, J., & Li, W. (2005). Applied linear statistical models (5th Eds.). McGraw-Hill.
Kyeremeh, F. K. (2015). Community Participation in Forest Management of Kakum Conservation Area of Central Region. Statewide Agricultural Land Use Baseline.
Lambertucci, S. A., & Speziale, K. L. (2021). Need for global conservation assessments and frameworks to include airspace habitat. Conservation Biology, 35(4), 1341-1343.
Lambin, E. F., & Meyfroidt, P. (2011). Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity. National Academy of Sciences, 108(9), 3465-3472.
Lawson, K., & Vines, A. (2014). Global impacts of the illegal wildlife trade: the costs of crime, insecurity, and institutional erosion. Chatham House.
Lawson, S., & MacFaul, L. (2010). Illegal logging and related trade: Indicators of the global response. Chatham House.
Liu, X. (2009). A statistical analysis of key factors influencing the location of biomass-using facilities (Master’s Thesis, University of Tennessee).
Lunstrum, E. (2014). Green militarization: Anti-poaching efforts and the spatial contours of Kruger National Park. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 104(4), 816-832.
MA (2005), Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Summary for Decision-makers, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Washington, DC, Island Press
Macedo, M. N., DeFries, R. S., Morton, D. C., Stickler, C. M., Galford, G. L., & Shimabukuro, Y. E. (2012). Decoupling of deforestation and soy production in the southern Amazon during the late 2000s. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(4), 1341-1346.
Machovina, B., Feeley, K. J., & Ripple, W. J. (2015). Biodiversity conservation: The key is reducing meat consumption. Science of the Total Environment, 536(5), 419-431.
Makoye, K. (2013). Anti-poaching operation spreads terror in Tanzania. Inter Press Service News Agency (6 January 2014). Available at: http://www.ipsnews.net/2014/01/anti-poaching-operation-spread-terror-tanzania/
Marion, J. L., & Reid, S. E. (2007). Minimizing visitor impacts to protected areas: The efficacy of low impact education programmes. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 15(1), 5-27.
Mascia, M. B., Brosius, J. P., Dobson, T. A., Forbes, B. C., Horowitz, L., McKean, M. A., & Turner, N. J. (2003). Conservation and the social sciences. Conservation Biology, 17(3), 649-650.
Maselli D, Spehn E, Körner C, (2010). Mountain Biodiversity and global change. Published by Global Mountain Biodiversity Assessment (GMBA) of DIVERSITAS, Institute of Botany, University of Basel with the support of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC). p.59
Masozera, M. K. (2002). Socioeconomic impact analysis of the conservation of the Nyungwe forest reserve, Rwanda (Doctoral dissertation, University of Gainesville, Florida).
Mayaux, P., Pekel, J. F., Desclée, B., Donnay, F., Lupi, A., Achard, F., & Belward, A. (2013). State and evolution of the African rainforests between 1990 and 2010. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 368(1625), 20120300.
Metzger, M., Patt, A. G., Tadross, M., Nussbaumer, P., Asante, K., Rafael, J., & Brundrit, G. (2010). Estimating least-developed countries’ vulnerability to climate-related extreme events over the next 50 years. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(4), 1333-1337.
Millán, A., Picazo, F., Sánchez-Fernández, D., Abellán, P., Velasco, J., Lobo, J. M., & Ribera, I. (2012). Efectividad de la red de parques nacionales peninsulares en la conservación de la biodiversidad acuática.
Mugizi, F., Ayorekire, J., & Obua, J. (2017). Factors that influence local community participation in tourism in Murchison falls conservation area. Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering A, 6(4).
Muhanna, E. (2007). The contribution of sustainable tourism development in poverty alleviation of local communities in South Africa. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 6(1), 37-67.
Mukul, S. A., Rashid, A. M., & Khan, N. A. (2016). Forest protected area systems and biodiversity conservation in Bangladesh.
Mulualem, G., & Tesfahunegny, W. (2016). Review of key wildlife threats factors from literature and observation perspectives: A way forward for sustainable wildlife genetic resource conservation practices in Ethiopia. The Journal of Zoology Studies, 3(5), 01-12.
Mwakima, M. W. (2013). Determinants of the biodiversity conservation-tourism nexus in the buffer zone of Amboseli biosphere reserve, Kenya.
Naidoo, P., Ramseook-Munhurrun, P., & Seegoolam, P. (2011). An assessment of visitor satisfaction with nature-based tourism attractions. International Journal of Management and Marketing Research, 4(1), 87-98.
Navalpotro, J. A. S., Quiroga, F. G., & Pérez, M. S. (2012). Evaluation of tourism development in the National Parks of Spain. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 3(14), 3 -14.
Ngoka, P. C. (2013). Capacity and levels of utilization of tourism potentials of Yankari and Cross River National Parks–implications for optimistic ecotourism development in Nigeria. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 2(4), 1-12.
Ngoufo, R., Yongyeh, N. K., Obioha, E. E., Bobo, K. S., Jimoh, S. O., & Waltert, M. (2014). Social norms and cultural services-community belief system and use of wildlife products in the Northern periphery of the Korup National Park, South-West Cameroon. Change and Adaptation in Socio-Ecological Systems, 1(1), 26-34.
Nicholus, L., & Thapa, B. (2010) Visitor perspectives on sustainable tourism development in Pitons management area, St. Lucia, world heritage site. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 12(5): 839-857.
Niezgoda, A., & Czernek, K. (2008). Development of cooperation between residents and local authority in tourism destination. Turizam: Međunarodni Znanstveno-Stručni Časopis, 56(4), 385-398.
Njogu, J.G. (2004). Community-based conservation in entillement perspective: Wildlife and forest biodiversity conservation in Taita, Kenya. African Studies Reports.
Njogu, R. N. E., Kariuki, D. K., Kamau, D. M., and Wachira, F. N. (2014). Effects of foliar fertilizer application on quality of tea (Camellia sinensis) grown in the Kenyan highlands. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 5, 2707-2715.
Nuno, A. N. A., Bunnefeld, N., Naiman, L. C., & Milner‐Gulland, E. J. (2013). A novel approach to assessing the prevalence and drivers of illegal bushmeat hunting in the Serengeti. Conservation Biology, 27(6), 1355-1365.
Obioha, E. E., Isiugo, P. N., Jimoh, S. O., Ikyaagba, E., Ngoufo, R., Serge, B. K., & Waltert, M. (2012). Bush meat harvesting and human subsistence nexus in the Oban hill Communities of Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 38(1), 49-64.
Obioma, B. K (2013). Tourism potentials and socio-economic development of Nigeria: Challenges and prospects. Reiko International Journal of Social and Economic Research, 7(2), 30-45.
Obour, R., Asare, R., Ankomah, P., & Larson, T. (2016). Poaching and its potential to impact wildlife tourism: An assessment of poaching trends in the mole national park in Ghana. Athens Journal of Tourism, 3(3), 169-92.
Oromia Forest and Wildlife Enterprise. (2014). Farm Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia: Bale mountains eco-region Reduction of Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) Project- Ethiopia.
Oruonye, E. D., & Ahmed, M. Y. (2017). Assessment of environmental effect of abandoned uranium mine site in Mika village of Taraba State Nigeria. International Journal of Geography and Geology, 6(4), 70-78.
Owens, R. A., & Myres, M. T. (1973). Effects of agriculture upon populations of native passerine birds of an Alberta fescue grassland. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 51(7), 697-713.
Park, H. A. (2013). An introduction to logistic regression: from basic concepts to interpretation with particular attention to nursing domain. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing, 43(2), 154-164.
Pennaz, A. K., Ahmadou, M., Moritz, M., & Scholte, P. (2018). Not seeing the cattle for the elephants: the implications of discursive linkages between Boko Haram and wildlife poaching in Waza National Park, Cameroon. Conservation and Society, 16(2), 125-135.
Pereira, H. M., Navarro, L. M., & Martins, I. S. (2012). Global biodiversity change: the bad, the good, and the unknown. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 37, 12-50.
Plieninger, T., Draux, H., Fagerholm, N., Bieling, C., Bürgi, M., Kizos, T., & Verburg, P. H. (2016). The driving forces of landscape change in Europe: A systematic review of the evidence. Land Use Policy, 57(5), 204-214.
Rashid, A. M., Craig, D., Mukul, S. A., & Khan, N. A. (2013). A journey towards shared governance: status and prospects for collaborative management in the protected areas of Bangladesh. Journal of Forestry Research, 24(3), 599-605.
Roe, D., Booker, F., Day, M., Zhou, W., Allebone Webb, S., Hill, N. A. O., Kumpel, N., Petrokofsky, G., Redford, K., Russell, D., Shepherd, G., Wright, J., and Sunderland, T. C. H. (2015). Are alternative livelihood projects effective at reducing local threats to specified elements of biodiversity and/or improving or maintaining the conservation status of those elements? Environmental Evidence, 4(22), 1-22.
Ruiz-Mallén, I., & Corbera, E. (2013). Community-based conservation and traditional ecological knowledge: implications for social-ecological resilience. Ecology and Society, 18(4), 12-19.
Sakala, L., Harrell, S., & Thomson, C. (2018). Public investment in community-driven safety initiatives: Landscape study and key considerations. Urban Institute.
Sam, I. E., Nnaji, E. S., & Etefia, T. E. (2014). Level Of Community Participation In The Conservation Of Natural Resources In Akamkpa Local Government Area, Southern Cross River State, Nigeria. Journal of Research & Method Education, 4(4), 30-35.
Sarkar, S., & Illoldi-Rangel, P. (2010). Systematic conservation planning: an updated protocol. Natureza & Conservação, 8(1), 19-26.
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2007). Research methods. Business students (4eds.). Pearson Education Limited.
Sayyed, M. R. G. (2013). SWOT analysis of Tandooreh National Park (NE Iran) for sustainable ecotourism. Proceedings of the International Academy of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 3(4), 296.
Scanes, C. G. (2018). Human activity and habitat loss: destruction, fragmentation, and degradation. In Animals and human society (pp. 451-482). Academic Press
Secretariat, G. T. I. (2012). Managing tiger conservation landscapes and habitat connectivity: threats and possible solutions. Experiences from Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. Global tiger recovery program implementation report. The World Bank.
Shaheed, M., & Chowdhury, H. (Eds.). (2014). Forest conservation in protected areas of Bangladesh: Policy and Community Development Perspectives. Springer.
Shepherd, E., Milner-Gulland, E. J., Knight, A. T., Ling, M. A., Darrah, S., van Soesbergen, A., & Burgess, N. D. (2016). Status and trends in global ecosystem services and natural capital: Assessing progress toward Aichi Biodiversity Target 14. Conservation Letters, 9(6), 429-437.
Shrestha, U. B., & Bawa, K. S. (2013). Trade, harvest, and conservation of caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) in the Himalayas. Biological Conservation, 159(4), 514-520.
Small, A., Martin, T. G., Kitching, R. L., & Wong, K. M. (2004). Contribution of tree species to the biodiversity of a 1ha old world rainforest in Brunei, Borneo. Biodiversity & Conservation, 13(11), 2067-2088.
Sodhi, N. S., Posa, M. R. C., Lee, T. M., Bickford, D., Koh, L. P., & Brook, B. W. (2010). The state and conservation of Southeast Asian biodiversity. Biodiversity and Conservation, 19(2), 317-328.
Sommer, V., & Ross, C. (2011). Exploring and protecting West Africa’s primates: The Gashaka primate project in context. In Primates of Gashaka (pp. 1-37). Springer.
Souto, T., Deichmann, J. L., Núñez, C., & Alonso, A. (2014). Classifying conservation targets based on the origin of motivation: implications over the success of community-based conservation projects. Biodiversity and Conservation, 23(5), 1331-1337.
Steffen, P. R., & Larson, M. J. (2015). A brief mindfulness exercise reduces cardiovascular reactivity during a laboratory stressor paradigm. Mindfulness, 6(4), 803–811.
Steinmetz, R., & Garshelis, D. L. (2008). Distinguishing Asiatic black bears and sun bears by claw marks on climbed trees. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 72(3), 814-821.
Stolton, S., Dudley, N., & Randall, J. (2008). Natural security: Protected areas and hazard mitigaton. Worldwide Fund for Nature.
Tagowa, W. N., & Buba, U. N. (2012). Emergent strategies for sustainable rural tourism development of Gashaka-Gumti National Park, Nigeria. WIT Transactions on Ecology and The Environment, 161, 27-41.
Tanvir, O. F., & Afroze, Z. A. (2016). Role of community youths in conservation of forests and protected areas of Bangladesh. International Journal of Business, Human and Social Sciences, 10(1), 230-233.
Tesfahunegny, W., Fekensa, T., & Mulualem, G. (2016). Avifauna diversity in Kafa biosphere reserve: Knowledge and Perception of villagers in southwest Ethiopia. Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 1(2), 7-13.
Thornycroft, P., & Laing, A. (2013). Poachers kill 300 Zimbabwe elephants with cyanide. TheTelegraph.http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/zimbabwe/10390634/Poachers-kill-300-Zimbabwe-elephants-with-cyanide.html
Timmer, V., & Juma, C. (2005). Taking root: Biodiversity conservation and poverty reduction come together in the tropics. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 47(4), 24-44.
Turnhout, E., Hisschemöller, M., & Eijsackers, H. (2004). The role of views of nature in Dutch nature conservation: The case of the creation of a drift sand area in the Hoge Veluwe National Park. Environmental Values, 187-198.
UNEP (United Nations Environmental Program) (2010) State of Biodiversity in Asia and the Pacific. Nairobi, Kenya.
UNEP, (2010) Görg, C., Neßhöver, C., & Paulsch, A. (2010). A new link between biodiversity science and policy. Gaia-Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society, 19(3), 183-186
UNEP-WCMC, I. U. C. N., & IUCN, U. W. (2014). The World database on protected areas (WDPA) [On-line]. UNEP-WCMC.
UNWTO, U. (2011). Tourism: Investing in the green economy. Towards a Green Economy, 409-447.
Vargas, A., & Díaz, D. (2014). Community-based conservation programs and local people willingness to pay for wildlife protection: The case of the cotton-top tamarin in the Colombian Caribbean. Lecturas de Economía, 81, 187-206.
Vial, F. (2010). Conservation science for common ground: Developing the necessary tools to manage livestock grazing pressure in Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia (Doctoral dissertation, University of Glasgow).
Vira, V., & Ewing, T. (2014). Ivory's curse: the militarization and professionalization of poaching in Africa.
Vitousek, P. M., Mooney, H. A., Lubchenco, J., & Melillo, J. M. (1997). Human domination of Earth's Ecosystems. Science, 277(5325), 494-499.
Wade, A. A., & Theobald, D. M. (2010). Residential development encroachment on US protected areas. Conservation Biology, 24(1), 151-161.
Wairimu, E., Obare, G., & Odendo, M. (2016). Factors affecting weather index-based crop insurance in Laikipia County, Kenya. Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, 8(7), 111-121.
Walker, D. A., Alsos, I. G., Bay, C., Boulanger-Lapointe, N., Breen, A. L., Bültmann, H., & Raynolds, M. K. (2013). Rescuing valuable arctic vegetation data for biodiversity models, ecosystem models and a panarctic vegetation classification. Arctic, 66(1), 133-137.
Watts, S., & Faasen, H. (2009). Community-based conflict resolution strategies for sustainable management of the Tsitsikamma National Park, South Africa. South African Geographical Journal, 91(1), 25-37.
Weaver, D. B., & Lawton, L. J. (2007). Twenty years on: The state of contemporary ecotourism research. Tourism Management, 28(5), 1168-1179.
Wilson, M. C., Chen, X. Y., Corlett, R. T., Didham, R. K., Ding, P., Holt, R. D., & Laurance, W. F. (2016). Habitat fragmentation and biodiversity conservation: Key findings and future challenges. Landscape Ecology, 31, 219–227.
Wilson, T. S., Sleeter, B. M., Sleeter, R. R., & Soulard, C. E. (2014). Land-use threats and protected areas: A scenario-based, landscape level approach. Land, 3(2), 362-389.
Woodroffe, R., Thirgood, S., & Rabinowitz, A. (Eds.). (2005). People and wildlife, conflict, or co-existence?. Cambridge University Press.
Worboys, G. (2007). Evaluation subjects and methods required for managing protected areas (PhD thesis, Griffith University, Gold Coast).
Wu, S. B., Liu, N., Zhang, Y. & Ma, G. Z. (2004) Assessment of threatened status of Chinese Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla). China Journal. Appl. Environment. Biology, 10(4), 456-461.
WWF, G. F. N., & GFN, E. (2012). Living Planet report 2012: Biodiversity, biocapacity and better choices. WWF.
Zahidin, M. A., Roslan, A., Marni, W., Kombi, M., & Mbdullah, M. T. (2016). Biodiversity assessment and updated checklist of faunal diversity in Bako National Park, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. Journal of Sustainability Science and Management, 11(1), 53-72.
Zander, K. K., Pang, S. T., Jinam, C., Tuen, A. A., & Garnett, S. T. (2014). Wild and valuable? Tourist values for orang-utan conservation in Sarawak. Conservation and Society, 12(1), 27-42.
Zikmund, W. G. (2003). Sample designs and sampling procedures. Business Research Methods, 7(2), 368-400.
Zohrabi, M. (2013). Mixed method research: Instruments, validity, reliability and reporting findings. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3(2), 254-262.