Epoxidized Palm Kernel Oil and Monomethylol Urea as Co-Polymer Binder for a Water-Resistant Paint
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363-382
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Sep 8, 2025
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10.58578/kijst.v2i3.7345
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Authors:
Archibong C. S1, Thliza B. A2, Fadawa F. G3, Akaakondo F. T4 
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Abstract
The development of eco-friendly and efficient binders remains a critical focus in modern paint formulation. In this study, the triglyceride structure of palm kernel oil was epoxidized and structurally modified to create reactive sites for chemical bonding. The resulting epoxidized palm kernel oil (EPKO) was chemically blended with monomethylol urea (MMU), a thermoset resin obtained from one-step condensation polymerization of urea and formaldehyde to produce a hybrid copolymer composite (EPKO/MMU). Structural characterization using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) confirmed chemical interactions between EPKO and MMU, evidenced by upward and downward shifts in absorption bands. Rheological evaluation revealed enhanced film-forming properties. Viscosity, refractive index, elongation at break, and turbidity increased with higher EPKO content up to 50%, after which deviations were observed. Conversely, melting point, density, formaldehyde emission, and moisture uptake decreased with continuous EPKO incorporation. The hybrid copolymer successfully combined the advantages of both components, mitigating the rigidity and high formaldehyde emission of MMU while enhancing flexibility, hydrophobicity, and water resistance contributed by EPKO. The findings demonstrate the potential of EPKO/MMU composites as sustainable, high-performance binders for emulsion paint applications, offering improved environmental compatibility and superior material properties.
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Monomethylol Urea; Epoxidized Palm Kernel Oil; Hybrid Composite; Copolymer; Emulsion Paint; Water Resistance; Characterization
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S, A. C., A, T. B., G, F. F., & T, A. F. (2025). Epoxidized Palm Kernel Oil and Monomethylol Urea as Co-Polymer Binder for a Water-Resistant Paint. Kwaghe International Journal of Sciences and Technology, 2(3), 363-382. https://doi.org/10.58578/kijst.v2i3.7345
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
References
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Azanam, S.H., and Siew, K (2007). Natural rubber and its derivatives, elastomers, Nevin Cankaya, intechopen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.69661.
Bashar, M.A and Jumat, S (2010). Epoxidation of Vegetable Oils and Fatty Acids: Catalysts, Methods and Advantages. Journal of Applied Sciences, 10:1545-1553.
Bharath, N.K., and Swamy, P.R (2009). Adhesive tensile and moisture absorption characteristics of natural fibers ’reinforced urea formaldehyde composites. International Journal of recent trends in Engineering, 1(5):60-62
Bin, F., Xiang, F., Huai-Xi, W., Wen, D and Yu-Chun, L(2016). The effect of Crystallinity on the compressive Properyies of A-PTFE. Journal of Polymers, 8(10):356-362.
Blaise, V.I., Ogunniya, D.S., Ongoka, P.R., Moussounga. J.E. and Ouamba J.M (2012). Physio-Chemical properties of alkyd resin and palm oil. Malaysian Polymer Journal, 7(2):42-45.
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Donnchadh, C., Ciaran M., Amanda, G and Michael, G (2008). Development of a recycled polymer modified binder for use in stone mastic asphalt. Resources Conservation and Recycling, 52(10):1167-1174
Dweck, J., and Buchler, P.M. (2005). A review about binders in paint formulation. Journal of Coatings Technology and Research, 2(4), pp 317-325
Emile, M (2015). Moisture transfer properties of coated gypsum. Eindhoven University Press, Eindhoven, Netherlands. 15(7):2-6
Ganeshram, V. and Achudhan, M (2013). Synthesis and Characterization of Phenol Formaldehyde Resin as a Binder used for Coated Abrasives. Industrial Journal of Science and Technology, 6 (6):4814-4823.
Garnier, S., Pizzi, A., Vorster, O.C., Halasz, L. (2002). Rheology of polyflavonoid tannin. Formaldehyde reactions before and after gelling. I: Methods. Journal of Applied polymer Science, 86(4):852-863.
George, A., and Kurian, T. (2016). Modified polystylene binders in paint: A hybrid approach. Materials Today: proceedings, 3(10), pp4148-4153
Gonzalez GM, Cabanelas JC, Baselga J (2012). Application of FTIR on epoxy resins-Identification, monitoring the curing process, phase separation and water uptake. Infrared Spectrosc.–Mater. Sci. Eng. Technol. 261-283.
Goud, V., Patwardhan, A.V., Dinda, S. and Praddhan, N.C (2007). Epoxidation of karanja (pongamia glabra) oil catalyzed by acidic ion exchangers. European journal of lipid Science and Technology, 109:575-584
Habibu, U (2011). Production of trowel paints using polyvinyl synthesis from vinyl acetate monomer as binder. Leonardo Journal of Science, 19:49-56.
Hlaing, N.N, and Ooi, M. M (2008). Manufacture of alkyd resin from castor oil. World Acadamics Science Engeering Technology, 24(208):155-161.
Hu, X., Fan, J., Yue, C.Y (2001). Rheological study of crosslinkingand gelation in bismaleimide/cyanate ester interpenetrating polymer network. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 80(5):2437-2445.
Hwang, Y., Sangmook, L., Youngjae, Y., Kwangho, J., and Lee, W (2012). Reactive extrusion of polypropylene/polystyrene blends with supercritical carbon dioxide. Journal of Macromolecular Res. 20(6):559-567.
Jin, Y., Cheng, Z., and Zhang, Q. (2017). Synthesis and Application of amino resins in coatings. Progress in Organic Coatings, 106, pp101-109.
Kaniappan K, Latha S (2011). Certain Investigations on the formulation and characterization of polystyrene/poly (methylmethacrylate) blends. Int. J. Chem. Res. 3(2):708-717.
Kazys, R., and Rekuviene, R (2011). Viscosity and density measurement methods for polymer melts. Ultragarsas “Ultrasound ”66(4):20-25.
Khot, S.N., Lascala, J.J., Erde, C., Williams, I.G (2001). Development and application of triglyride-based polymers and composites. Journal applied Polymer Science, 82(2):213-224
Kim, M.G., Kanatzidis, M.G., Facchetti A., Marks T.J (2011). Low-Temperature Fabrication of high Performance Metal Oxide Thin-Film electronics via combustion Processing. US Nat. Lib. Of Med. Natural instistute of Health. 10(5):382-8
kirana, suswato, and sigit T. Nicaksmo (2018). Effect of thermoset plastic addition in physical and mechanical properties of plastics waste composite for construction material application. AIP conference proceedings, 34(2):1-20
Lee J., Jeon. H., Kim S. (2011). Green adhesives using tannin and Cashew nut shell liquid for environmental-friendly furniture materials. J. Korean Furniture society. 22(3):219-229
Madufor, I., Eze, O., Marthin, U. (2013). The effect of bamboo powder on some mechanical properties recycled low density polyethylene (RLDP) composite. Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences, 4(1):409-419
Mavani. I.S., Mehta, M.N., Parsania, H.P (2007). Synthesis and physico-chemical study of polyester resin of 1,1-bis (3-methyl-4-hydroxyl phenyl) cyclohexane and rininoleic acid and its polyurethanes with polyethylene glycol. Journal of Science and and industrial research, 66(6):377-384
Menkiti M.C., Onukwuli O.D (2011). Utilization potentials of rubber seed oil for the production of alkyd resin using variable base oil lengths. New York Sci. J. 4(2):51-59.
Ming Cao, Taohong Li, Jiankun Liang and Guanben D.U. (2017). The influence of pH on Melanine-Dimthylurea-Formaldehyde Co-condensations: A Quantitative 13C-NMR Study. MDPI J. of Polymer 10(9): 1-12
Osemeahon, S.A and Dimas, B.J. (2014). Development of urea formaldehyde and polystyrene waste as copolymer binder for emulsion paint formulation. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences, 6(3):75-88.
Patrovic Z.S., Zlatanic A., Lava C.C., and Sinasinovic-fise S. (2003). Epoxidation of soyabean oil in toluene with peroxoacetic acid and peroxoformi acids-kinetics and side reactions. European journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 104(5): 293-299
Qi, G.R., Wang Y.H., Li, X.X., Peng, H.Y., and Yang S. L (2002). Viscometric study of on the specific interaction between proton-donating polymersand proton-accepting polymers. Journal of Applied Sciences, 85:415-421
Roseany, L., Nuno, L., Zamian, J., Fonseca, P., Macedo, J., Dos, S., Maria, S., Maria, H (2013). Synthesis and Characterization of Polymeric Materials from Vegetable Oils. Macromolecular Symposia, 286(1):89-94.
Sahad, N., Som, A., Baharuddin, A., Mokhtar, M., Buzu Z.,and Sulaiman, a (2015). Physicochemical characterization of Oil palm Decanter Cake (OPDC) for Residual Oil Recovery. Bioresources, 9(8):6361-6372.
Salthammer T, Mentese S, Marutzky R (2010). Formaldehyde in the indoor environment. Chem. Rev. 110(4):2536-2572.
Shashidhara, Y and Jayaram, S. (2010). Vegetable oils as a potential cutting fluid-an evolution. Tribology international, 43(5):1073-1081.
Stefena Acierno, Peter Van Puyvelde (2005). Effect of short chain branching upon crystallization of model polyamides-11. Journal of Polymer, 46:10331-10338.
Suurpere, A., Christjanson P., Siimer K. (2006). Rotational Viscometry for the study of urea formaldehyde resins. Process Estonian Acadamic Science Engineering, 12(2):134-146
Unar, I.N., Soomro, S.A., Aziz, S (2010). Effects of various additives on the physical properties of polyvinyl chloride Resins. Journal of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry, 11(2):44-50
Weng, H., Ashok, K., Behera, S., Rao, S., and Yamagata, T (2013). Impacts of recent CP El Ni on dry/wet conditions in the Pacific Rim during boreal summer. Climate Dynamics, 29(6):113-129.
Yelwa, J.M., Osemeahon, S.A., Nkafamiya, I.I. and Abdullahi, S. (2017). Synthesis and Characterization of Hydroxylated Sunflower Seed Oil/Poly Vinyl Acetate Copolymer as a Binder for Possible Application in the Coating Industry, 4(7): International Journal of Science, 4(7):39-43
Zorba, T., Papadopoulou E., Hatjiissaak A., Paraskevopoulos K.M and Chrissafis K (2008). Urea-formaldehyde resins characterized by thermal analysis and FTIR method. Journal thermal Analysis and Calorimetry 92:29-33.
Al-Manasir, N. (2009). Preparation and Characterization of crosslinked polymeric nanoparticles for enhanced oil recovery applications. University of Oslo, Norway. Pp.12-85
Archibong C. and Osemeahon S (2019). Development of monomethylol urea for coating application: effect of time on synthesis. Current trends biomedical engineering & biosciences, 2019; 18(2):1-6 issn:2572-1151
Archibong, C.S., Bintu Kime and Fadawa F.G (2024). Compounding of Synthesized Monomethylol Urea and Hydroxylated Palm Kernel Oil as a Composite Resin for Emulsion Paint Formulation. Kwaghe International Journal of Science and Technology, 1(1): 323-343
Archibong, C.S., Osemeahon S.A., Ushie O.A., and Ugwuja, D.I., (2018). Trimethylol urea and polyethylene waste composite as Binder for emulsion paint Formulation. International Journal of modern Chemistry, 10(1):1-13
Azanam, S.H., and Siew, K (2007). Natural rubber and its derivatives, elastomers, Nevin Cankaya, intechopen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.69661.
Bashar, M.A and Jumat, S (2010). Epoxidation of Vegetable Oils and Fatty Acids: Catalysts, Methods and Advantages. Journal of Applied Sciences, 10:1545-1553.
Bharath, N.K., and Swamy, P.R (2009). Adhesive tensile and moisture absorption characteristics of natural fibers ’reinforced urea formaldehyde composites. International Journal of recent trends in Engineering, 1(5):60-62
Bin, F., Xiang, F., Huai-Xi, W., Wen, D and Yu-Chun, L(2016). The effect of Crystallinity on the compressive Properyies of A-PTFE. Journal of Polymers, 8(10):356-362.
Blaise, V.I., Ogunniya, D.S., Ongoka, P.R., Moussounga. J.E. and Ouamba J.M (2012). Physio-Chemical properties of alkyd resin and palm oil. Malaysian Polymer Journal, 7(2):42-45.
Boussu, F., Giraud, E., Chen, Y., and Bruniaux, P. (2014). Surface appearance of textiles and lighe scattering. In Surface Characteristics of fibres and textiles (pp. 213-234). Woodhead publishing
Cakir, M.S., Ivana, S.R., Vladislav, M.J., Radmilaz, R., Olivera, Z.I., and Jao, K.B (2012). Investigation of the curing kinetics of alkyd-melamine-epoxy resinsystem. Progress in organic coatings, 73(4):415-424.
Donnchadh, C., Ciaran M., Amanda, G and Michael, G (2008). Development of a recycled polymer modified binder for use in stone mastic asphalt. Resources Conservation and Recycling, 52(10):1167-1174
Dweck, J., and Buchler, P.M. (2005). A review about binders in paint formulation. Journal of Coatings Technology and Research, 2(4), pp 317-325
Emile, M (2015). Moisture transfer properties of coated gypsum. Eindhoven University Press, Eindhoven, Netherlands. 15(7):2-6
Ganeshram, V. and Achudhan, M (2013). Synthesis and Characterization of Phenol Formaldehyde Resin as a Binder used for Coated Abrasives. Industrial Journal of Science and Technology, 6 (6):4814-4823.
Garnier, S., Pizzi, A., Vorster, O.C., Halasz, L. (2002). Rheology of polyflavonoid tannin. Formaldehyde reactions before and after gelling. I: Methods. Journal of Applied polymer Science, 86(4):852-863.
George, A., and Kurian, T. (2016). Modified polystylene binders in paint: A hybrid approach. Materials Today: proceedings, 3(10), pp4148-4153
Gonzalez GM, Cabanelas JC, Baselga J (2012). Application of FTIR on epoxy resins-Identification, monitoring the curing process, phase separation and water uptake. Infrared Spectrosc.–Mater. Sci. Eng. Technol. 261-283.
Goud, V., Patwardhan, A.V., Dinda, S. and Praddhan, N.C (2007). Epoxidation of karanja (pongamia glabra) oil catalyzed by acidic ion exchangers. European journal of lipid Science and Technology, 109:575-584
Habibu, U (2011). Production of trowel paints using polyvinyl synthesis from vinyl acetate monomer as binder. Leonardo Journal of Science, 19:49-56.
Hlaing, N.N, and Ooi, M. M (2008). Manufacture of alkyd resin from castor oil. World Acadamics Science Engeering Technology, 24(208):155-161.
Hu, X., Fan, J., Yue, C.Y (2001). Rheological study of crosslinkingand gelation in bismaleimide/cyanate ester interpenetrating polymer network. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 80(5):2437-2445.
Hwang, Y., Sangmook, L., Youngjae, Y., Kwangho, J., and Lee, W (2012). Reactive extrusion of polypropylene/polystyrene blends with supercritical carbon dioxide. Journal of Macromolecular Res. 20(6):559-567.
Jin, Y., Cheng, Z., and Zhang, Q. (2017). Synthesis and Application of amino resins in coatings. Progress in Organic Coatings, 106, pp101-109.
Kaniappan K, Latha S (2011). Certain Investigations on the formulation and characterization of polystyrene/poly (methylmethacrylate) blends. Int. J. Chem. Res. 3(2):708-717.
Kazys, R., and Rekuviene, R (2011). Viscosity and density measurement methods for polymer melts. Ultragarsas “Ultrasound ”66(4):20-25.
Khot, S.N., Lascala, J.J., Erde, C., Williams, I.G (2001). Development and application of triglyride-based polymers and composites. Journal applied Polymer Science, 82(2):213-224
Kim, M.G., Kanatzidis, M.G., Facchetti A., Marks T.J (2011). Low-Temperature Fabrication of high Performance Metal Oxide Thin-Film electronics via combustion Processing. US Nat. Lib. Of Med. Natural instistute of Health. 10(5):382-8
kirana, suswato, and sigit T. Nicaksmo (2018). Effect of thermoset plastic addition in physical and mechanical properties of plastics waste composite for construction material application. AIP conference proceedings, 34(2):1-20
Lee J., Jeon. H., Kim S. (2011). Green adhesives using tannin and Cashew nut shell liquid for environmental-friendly furniture materials. J. Korean Furniture society. 22(3):219-229
Madufor, I., Eze, O., Marthin, U. (2013). The effect of bamboo powder on some mechanical properties recycled low density polyethylene (RLDP) composite. Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences, 4(1):409-419
Mavani. I.S., Mehta, M.N., Parsania, H.P (2007). Synthesis and physico-chemical study of polyester resin of 1,1-bis (3-methyl-4-hydroxyl phenyl) cyclohexane and rininoleic acid and its polyurethanes with polyethylene glycol. Journal of Science and and industrial research, 66(6):377-384
Menkiti M.C., Onukwuli O.D (2011). Utilization potentials of rubber seed oil for the production of alkyd resin using variable base oil lengths. New York Sci. J. 4(2):51-59.
Ming Cao, Taohong Li, Jiankun Liang and Guanben D.U. (2017). The influence of pH on Melanine-Dimthylurea-Formaldehyde Co-condensations: A Quantitative 13C-NMR Study. MDPI J. of Polymer 10(9): 1-12
Osemeahon, S.A and Dimas, B.J. (2014). Development of urea formaldehyde and polystyrene waste as copolymer binder for emulsion paint formulation. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences, 6(3):75-88.
Patrovic Z.S., Zlatanic A., Lava C.C., and Sinasinovic-fise S. (2003). Epoxidation of soyabean oil in toluene with peroxoacetic acid and peroxoformi acids-kinetics and side reactions. European journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 104(5): 293-299
Qi, G.R., Wang Y.H., Li, X.X., Peng, H.Y., and Yang S. L (2002). Viscometric study of on the specific interaction between proton-donating polymersand proton-accepting polymers. Journal of Applied Sciences, 85:415-421
Roseany, L., Nuno, L., Zamian, J., Fonseca, P., Macedo, J., Dos, S., Maria, S., Maria, H (2013). Synthesis and Characterization of Polymeric Materials from Vegetable Oils. Macromolecular Symposia, 286(1):89-94.
Sahad, N., Som, A., Baharuddin, A., Mokhtar, M., Buzu Z.,and Sulaiman, a (2015). Physicochemical characterization of Oil palm Decanter Cake (OPDC) for Residual Oil Recovery. Bioresources, 9(8):6361-6372.
Salthammer T, Mentese S, Marutzky R (2010). Formaldehyde in the indoor environment. Chem. Rev. 110(4):2536-2572.
Shashidhara, Y and Jayaram, S. (2010). Vegetable oils as a potential cutting fluid-an evolution. Tribology international, 43(5):1073-1081.
Stefena Acierno, Peter Van Puyvelde (2005). Effect of short chain branching upon crystallization of model polyamides-11. Journal of Polymer, 46:10331-10338.
Suurpere, A., Christjanson P., Siimer K. (2006). Rotational Viscometry for the study of urea formaldehyde resins. Process Estonian Acadamic Science Engineering, 12(2):134-146
Unar, I.N., Soomro, S.A., Aziz, S (2010). Effects of various additives on the physical properties of polyvinyl chloride Resins. Journal of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry, 11(2):44-50
Weng, H., Ashok, K., Behera, S., Rao, S., and Yamagata, T (2013). Impacts of recent CP El Ni on dry/wet conditions in the Pacific Rim during boreal summer. Climate Dynamics, 29(6):113-129.
Yelwa, J.M., Osemeahon, S.A., Nkafamiya, I.I. and Abdullahi, S. (2017). Synthesis and Characterization of Hydroxylated Sunflower Seed Oil/Poly Vinyl Acetate Copolymer as a Binder for Possible Application in the Coating Industry, 4(7): International Journal of Science, 4(7):39-43
Zorba, T., Papadopoulou E., Hatjiissaak A., Paraskevopoulos K.M and Chrissafis K (2008). Urea-formaldehyde resins characterized by thermal analysis and FTIR method. Journal thermal Analysis and Calorimetry 92:29-33.