Quality Characteristics of Wheat Flour and Fermented Watermelon Seed Flour Blends
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218-235
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Mar 31, 2026
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10.58578/kijst.v3i1.9397
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Abubakar Ummulkhairu1, Akubor P. I.2, Rabiu Ibrahim Ajiya3, Adamu Hamsatu Sani4 
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Abstract
Bread quality can be enhanced through the incorporation of nutrient-dense alternative flours, yet evidence on the use of fermented watermelon seed flour remains limited. This study evaluated the quality characteristics of bread produced from wheat flour partially substituted with fermented watermelon seed flour (FWSF). Watermelon seeds were fermented with Saccharomyces cerevisiae for 72 hours, oven-dried at 40°C, milled, and sieved to 0.25 mm, after which the resulting flour was blended with wheat flour at substitution levels of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%. The flour blends were analyzed for proximate composition, phytochemical content, functional properties, and pasting characteristics, while the breads were evaluated for chemical composition, antioxidant activity, protein and starch digestibility, color, physical properties, and sensory attributes. The results showed that FWSF incorporation improved the proximate composition, phytochemical content, functional properties, and pasting characteristics of the flour blends. Antioxidant activity also increased significantly, with FRAP values rising from 0.13 mol/100 g in the control bread to 0.24–0.33 mol/100 g in composite breads, and DPPH values increasing from 21.74 to 36.71 mg AAE/100 g at 25% substitution. Baking loss decreased from 25% in the control to 16.65% in breads containing FWSF, while physical properties remained largely unaffected. Although sensory scores declined progressively with higher substitution levels, the 5% substitution sample recorded the highest taste rating among the composite breads and did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) from the control in overall sensory attributes. General acceptability ranged from 5.45 to 7.25 for composite breads compared with 7.50 for the control. In addition, L*, a*, and b* color values increased with FWSF inclusion, while the browning index decreased slightly. Overall, partial substitution of wheat flour with fermented watermelon seed flour enhanced the nutritional, functional, and antioxidant quality of bread without adversely affecting its physical characteristics, with 5% substitution identified as the most appropriate level based on improved quality attributes and consumer acceptability.
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Bread Quality; Fermented Watermelon Seed Flour; Saccharomyces cerevisiae; Antioxidant Activity; Sensory Acceptability
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Ummulkhairu, A., P. I., A., Ajiya, R. I., & Sani, A. H. (2026). Quality Characteristics of Wheat Flour and Fermented Watermelon Seed Flour Blends. Kwaghe International Journal of Sciences and Technology, 3(1), 218-235. https://doi.org/10.58578/kijst.v3i1.9397
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
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Adebayo, S. F., Afolabi, T. A., & Oladele, A. K. (2013). Effects of fermentation on the functional and pasting characteristics of selected seed flours. African Journal of Food Science, 7(9), 282–287.
Adebayo, T. K., & Ibrahim, M. C. (2024). Phytochemical studies of wheat-plantain composite flours enriched with velvet beans flours. Research Journal of Food Science and Nutrition, 9(2), 61–66. https://doi.org/10.31248/RJFSN2024.174
Adegunloye, A. P., Ogunyemi, O. M., Gyebi, G. A., Elfiky, A. A., Afolabi, S. O., Ogunro, O. B., & Ibrahim, I. M. (2020). Alkaloids and flavonoids from African phytochemicals as potential inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase: An in silico perspective. Antiviral Chemistry and Chemotherapy, 28, 2040206620984076. https://doi.org/10.1177/2040206620984076
Adegunloye, D. V., Olotu, T. M., & Sanusi, M. B. (2020). Microbial fermentation of watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) seeds for bioethanol production. Journal of Biotechnology Research, 6(8), 104–108.
Adesanya, A. O., Olaseinde, O. O., Oguntayo, O. O., Otulana, J. O., & Adefule, A. K. (2011). Effects of methanolic extract of Citrullus lanatus seed on experimentally induced prostatic hyperplasia. European Journal of Medicinal Plants, 1(4), 171–179. https://doi.org/10.9734/EJMP/2011/588
Adesulu, A. T., & Awojobi, K. O. (2014). Enhancing sustainable development through indigenous fermented food products in Nigeria. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 8(12), 1338–1343.
Ahmed, M. A. R. H., Mustafa, A. I., Hussan, H. A. R., & Elfaki, A. E. (2016). Proximate analysis, protein and starch digestibility, specific volume, and sensory evaluation of (gluten-free) tin bread. Open Access Library Journal, 3, e2698. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1102698
Akubor, P. I., & Nwawi, D. O. (2019). Phytochemical composition, physical and sensory properties of bread supplemented with fermented sweet orange peel flour. Innovare Journal of Food Science, 7(4), 1–6. https://journals.innovareacademics.in/index.php/ijfs/article/view/33773
Akubor, P. I., Onoja, S. U., & Umego, C. E. (2013). Quality evaluation of fried noodles prepared from wheat, sweet potato and soybean flour blends. Journal of Nutrition Ecology and Food Research, 1(4), 281–287. https://doi.org/10.1166/jnef.2013.1039
Alabi, D. A., Akinsulire, O. R., & Sanyaolu, M. A. (2005). Qualitative determination of chemical and nutritional composition of Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Benth. African Journal of Biotechnology, 4(8), 812–815.
Algonaiman, R., Alharbi, H. F., & Barakat, H. (2022). Antidiabetic and hypolipidemic efficiency of Lactobacillus plantarum fermented oat (Avena sativa) extract in streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats. Fermentation, 8(6), 267. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8060267
Angadi, S. P., Hegde, G., Tikoo, S. K., & Kumar, A. (2025). Variety improvement in vegetables: Perspective of the seed industry. In Indian seed sector: Evolution, technology, trade and impact (pp. 115–164). Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-0714-3_5
Angeles-Agdeppa, I., Sun, Y., & Tanda, K. V. (2020). Dietary pattern and nutrient intakes in association with non-communicable disease risk factors among Filipino adults: A cross-sectional study. Nutrition Journal, 19(1), 79. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-020-00597-x
Anggraini, H., Tongkhao, K., & Chanput, W. (2018). Reducing milk allergenicity of cow, buffalo, and goat milk using lactic acid bacteria fermentation. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2021(1), 070010. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5062808
AOAC International. (2005). Official methods of analysis of AOAC International (18th ed.). AOAC International.
AOAC International. (2019). Official methods of analysis of AOAC International (21st ed.). AOAC International.
Arshad, M., Saleem, M., & Hussain, S. (2007). Perspectives of bacterial ACC deaminase in phytoremediation. Trends in Biotechnology, 25(8), 356–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2007.05.005
Arukwe, D. C. (2021). Proximate composition, functional and pasting properties of wheat flour supplemented with combined processed pigeon pea flour. International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition, 6(4), 59–64.
Arukwe, U., Amadi, B. A., Duru, M. K. C., Agomuo, E. N., Adindu, E. A., Odika, P. C., Lele, K. C., Egejuru, L., & Anudike, J. (2012). Chemical composition of Persea americana leaf, fruit and seed. IJRRAS, 11(2), 346–349.
Asama, T., Kimura, Y., Kono, T., Tatefuji, T., Hashimoto, K., & Benno, Y. (2016). Effects of heat-killed Lactobacillus kunkeei YB38 on human intestinal environment and bowel movement: A pilot study. Beneficial Microbes, 7(3), 337–344. https://doi.org/10.3920/BM2015.0132
Asfaw, M. D. (2021). Review on watermelon production and nutritional value in Ethiopia. Food Science and Quality Management, 104, 11–17.
Chukwu, M. N., Kabuo, N. O., & Nwokocha, N. J. (2018). Effects of fermentation time on the functional properties of ogiri-ahuekere (Arachis hypogaea Linn) seed condiment. International Journal of Biotechnology and Food Science, 6(5), 77–85.
Coulibay, A., Kouakou, B., & Chen, J. (2011). Phytic acid in cereal grains: Healthy or harmful ways to reduce phytic acid in cereal grains and their effect on nutritional quality. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 1, 1–22.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2019). Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction. Author.
Fleet, G. H. (2007). Yeasts in foods and beverages: Impact on product quality and safety. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 18(2), 170–175.
Gabriel, A. F., Igwemmar, N. C., Sadam, A. A., & Babalola, S. A. (2018). Characterization of seed oil from Citrullus lanatus (watermelon). Direct Research Journal of Public Health and Environmental Technology, 3(2), 34–40. https://doi.org/10.26765/DRJPHET.2018.7842
Hamza, A. M., Collins, A., Ado, S. G., Ikuenobe, C. E., & Ataga, C. D. (2014). Proximate compositions evaluation and variability among cultivars of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) in Nigeria. International Journal of Plant and Soil Science, 3(3), 248–259.
Ibeabuchi, J. C., Okafor, D. C., Peter-Ikechukwu, A., Agunwa, I. M., & Eluchie, C. N. (2017). Comparative study on the proximate composition, functional and sensory properties of three varieties of beans (Phaseolus lunatus, Phaseolus vulgaris and Vigna umbellata). IJAETMAS, 5(1), 1–23.
Ikechukwu, E. L., Okafor, P. N., & Egba, S. I. (2020). In vitro assessment of the anti-sickling properties of Buchholzia coriacea and Mucuna pruriens seed extracts. In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology-Animal, 56(9), 773–782. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11626-020-00512-y
Ivanišová, E., Mickowska, B., Socha, P., Režová, I., Kántor, A., Haris, L., Tokár, M., Terentjeva, M., & Kačániová, M. (2018). Determination of biological and sensory profiles of biscuits enriched with tea (Camellia sinensis L.) powder. Proceedings of the Latvian Academy of Sciences, Section B: Natural, Exact, and Applied Sciences, 72(2), 113–117. https://doi.org/10.2478/prolas-2018-0018
Chullikkal, J., Mishra, S., & Saravanan, C. (2024). Quality evaluation in the utilization of watermelon seed protein for chocolate manufacturing. ACS Food Science & Technology, 4(1), 218–228. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.3c00481
Jensen, T. S., Baron, R., Haanpää, M., Kalso, E., Loeser, J. D., Rice, A. S. C., & Treede, R.-D. (2011). A new definition of neuropathic pain. Pain, 152(10), 2204–2205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2011.06.017
Maicas, S. (2020). The role of yeasts in fermentation processes. Microorganisms, 8(8), 1142. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8081142
Maqbool, Z., Khalid, W., Atiq, H. T., Koraqi, H., Javaid, Z., Alhag, S. K., Al-Shuraym, L. A., Bader, D. M. D., Almarzuq, M., Afifi, M., & Al-Farga, A. (2023). Citrus waste as source of bioactive compounds: Extraction and utilization in health and food industry. Molecules, 28(4), 1636. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28041636
Mariod, A. A., & Fatima, A. M. (2022). Properties and advantages of food fermentation. In African fermented food products: New trends (pp. 31–36). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82902-5_3
Mukherjee, A., Dutta, D., Banerjee, S., Ringø, E., Breines, E. M., Hareide, E., & Ghosh, K. (2016). Potential probiotics from Indian major carp, Cirrhinus mrigala: Characterization, pathogen inhibitory activity, partial characterization of bacteriocin and production of exoenzymes. Research in Veterinary Science, 108, 76–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2016.08.011
Nzikou, J. M., Kimbonguila, A., Matos, L., Loumouamou, B., Pambou-Tobi, N. P. G., Ndangui, C. B., & Desobry, S. (2010). Extraction and characteristics of seed kernel oil from mango (Mangifera indica). Research Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences, 2(1), 31–35.
Ojinnaka, M. C., & Nnorom, C. C. (2015). Quality evaluation of wheat-cocoyam-soybean cookies. Nigerian Journal of Agricultural, Food and Environment, 11(3), 123–129.
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