Sustainable Rice Husk Mixture Fibre–Stripe Polyethylene Film Composites: Effects of Recycling and Alkali Treatment on Water Absorption, Flammability, Density, and Mechanical Properties
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246-276
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May 7, 2026
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10.58578/amjsai.v3i2.10004
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Authors:Mathias Bifam1, Yakubu Joshua2, Alheri Andrew3, Peter Micheal Dass4
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Abstract
The increasing accumulation of plastic and agricultural waste has intensified interest in sustainable polymer composites that combine improved material performance with environmental value. This study investigates the water absorption, flammability, density, hardness, and tensile strength of composites prepared from used and unused stripe polyethylene (PE) films and rice husk mixture fibres, with and without NaOH treatment. Water absorption testing showed that composites made with used PE exhibited the highest uptake, reaching 88.35% after 24 hours, which was attributed to polymer degradation and microvoid formation, whereas unused PE composites demonstrated superior moisture resistance, with absorption as low as 2.19%. NaOH-treated rice husk improved fibre–matrix adhesion and produced intermediate absorption values. Flammability analysis revealed that used PE composites burned faster, with rates of 0.88–0.39 mm/sec, compared with unused PE composites, which recorded 0.65–0.28 mm/sec, while NaOH treatment reduced flammability through enhanced char formation and silica content. Density measurements indicated lower values for used PE composites, ranging from 1.18 to 2.25 g/cm³, due to chain scission and void formation, whereas unused PE composites maintained higher densities of up to 2.75 g/cm³. Hardness and tensile strength increased with PE content, with unused PE composites achieving the highest values of 36.60 MPa and 54.90 MPa, respectively, while NaOH-treated rice husk composites provided balanced mechanical reinforcement. The study concludes that unused PE offers superior mechanical performance and moisture resistance, whereas NaOH-treated rice husk enhances interfacial bonding and fire-safety characteristics. These findings contribute to the development of sustainable rice husk–polyethylene composites as potential eco-friendly materials for packaging, construction, and automotive applications.
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Rice Husk Fibre; Polyethylene Composites; NaOH Treatment; Mechanical Properties; Sustainable Polymer Composites
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Bifam, M., Joshua, Y., Andrew, A., & Dass, P. M. (2026). Sustainable Rice Husk Mixture Fibre–Stripe Polyethylene Film Composites: Effects of Recycling and Alkali Treatment on Water Absorption, Flammability, Density, and Mechanical Properties. African Multidisciplinary Journal of Sciences and Artificial Intelligence, 3(2), 246-276. https://doi.org/10.58578/amjsai.v3i2.10004
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
References
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Bisht, N., & Gope, P. C. (2020). Effect of rice husk (treated/untreated) and rice husk ash on fracture toughness of epoxy bio-composite. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 29(1), 177–185. https://doi.org/10.1515/jmbm-2020-0018
Bisht, N., Gope, P. C., & Rani, N. (2020). Rice husk as a fibre in composites: A review. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 29(1), 147–162. https://doi.org/10.1515/jmbm-2020-0015
Chen, R., Salleh, M. N., Ghani, M. H. A., Ahmad, S., & Gan, S. (2015). Biocomposites based on rice husk flour and recycled polymer blend: Effects of interfacial modification and high fibre loading. BioResources, 10(4), 6872–6885. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.10.4.6872-6885
Chris-Okafor, P. U., Okonkwo, C. C., & Ohaeke, M. S. (2018). Reinforcement of high-density polyethylene with snail shell powder: Mechanical and morphological properties. American Journal of Polymer Science, 8(1), 17–21.
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Dev, B., Rahman, M. A., Alam, M. R., Repon, M. R., & Nawab, Y. (2023). Mapping the progress in natural fiber reinforced composites: Preparation, mechanical properties, and applications. Polymer Composites, 44(7), 3748–3788. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.27376
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Fang, X., Tao, X., Xie, Y., Xu, W., Guo, H., & Liu, Y. (2025). The effect of alkali treatment on the mechanical strength, thermal stability, and water absorption of bamboo fiber/PLA composites. Forests, 16(1), 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16010123
Ficici, F., & Kaya, A. M. (2025). Investigation of tribological behavior of rice husk reinforced high density polyethylene (HDPE) biocomposite. Materials Testing, 67(12), 1972–1984. https://doi.org/10.1515/mt-2025-0222
Gopinath, P., Kumar, R., & Senthilkumar, S. (2023). Effect of alkali treatment on rice husk fiber reinforced polymer composites: Mechanical properties and water absorption behavior. Journal of Fibers and Polymer Composites, 2(2), 145–156.
Gupta, A., Kataria, P., & Sharma, V. (2025). Physical, chemical composition and morphological analysis of rice husk reinforced epoxy composites. Oxford Open Materials Science, 5(1), itaf012. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfmat/itaf012
Haruna, B., Abdullahi, I., & Abdullahi, U. (2025). A comprehensive review of performance enhancement of hybrid rice husk polymer resin biocomposite. Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Engineering and Architecture, 16, 1309–1321. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43995-025-00167-4
Jagadeesh, P., Puttegowda, M., Rangappa, S. M., & Siengchin, S. (2021). A review on extraction, chemical treatment, characterization of natural fibers and its composites for potential applications. Polymer Composites, 42(12), 6239–6264. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.26312
Jia, Y., Chen, J., Asahara, H., Asoh, T.-A., & Uyama, H. (2019). Polymer surface oxidation by light-activated chlorine dioxide radical for metal–plastics adhesion. ACS Applied Polymer Materials, 1(12), 3452–3458. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsapm.9b00871
Jones, T., & Patel, M. (2019). Environmental degradation of polyethylene composites: Structural changes and water absorption behavior. Journal of Polymer Research, 26(8), 215.
Kassim Shaari, N. Z., Taha, A. R., & Hanipah, S. H. (2020). Composite from high density polyethylene (HDPE) reinforced with rice husks (Oryza sativa): Preparation and mechanical property. Malaysian Journal of Chemical Engineering and Technology, 3(2), 25–29. https://ir.uitm.edu.my/id/eprint/43487
Kaur, P., Kalpana, Kumar, S., Kumar, A., & Kumar, A. (2023). Effect of various sodium hydroxide treatment parameters on the adsorption efficiency of rice husk for removal of methylene blue from water. Emergent Materials, 6, 1809–1824. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42247-023-00574-0
Kida, T., Janchai, K., Tokumitsu, K., & Yamaguchi, M. (2023). Flow-induced crystallization behavior of high-density polyethylene evaluated by Rheo-Raman spectroscopic system. Polymer Journal, 55(11), 1141–1150. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41428-023-00821-5
Kumar, R., Singh, S., & Singh, T. (2018). Effect of alkali treatment on mechanical and water absorption properties of natural fibre reinforced polymer composites: A review. Materials Today: Proceedings, 5(2), 3698–3703.
Luna, I. Z., Dam, K. C., Chowdhury, A. M. S., Gafur, M. A., & Khan, R. A. (2015). Mechanical and spectroscopic properties of rice husk reinforced polypropylene composites: Effect of sodium hydroxide. International Journal of Composite Materials, 5(6), 162–166.
Mihelčič, M., Oseli, A., Huskić, M., & Slemenik Perše, L. (2022). Influence of stabilization additive on rheological, thermal and mechanical properties of recycled polypropylene. Polymers, 14(24), 5438. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14245438
Morales, M. A., Atencio Martinez, C. L., Maranon, A., Hernandez, C., Michaud, V., & Porras, A. (2021). Development and characterization of rice husk and recycled polypropylene composite filaments for 3D printing. Polymers, 13(7), 1067. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13071067
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Nurhayati, C., & Susanto, T. (2020). The effects of rice husk ashes filled recycled polyethylene composites towards physical, mechanical properties and its degradation characteristics. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 924(1), 012029. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/924/1/012029
Nuzaimah, M., Sapuan, S. M., Nadlene, R., & Jawaid, M. (2020). Sodium hydroxide treatment of waste rubber crumb and its effects on properties of unsaturated polyester composites. Applied Sciences, 10(11), 3913. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10113913
Okon Wilson, E., & Amgbari, C. O. (2024). Comparative evaluation of mechanical properties, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis, and water holding capacity of recycled and virgin high-density polyethylene (HDPE) plastics: A study on the morphological and physical characteristics of thermoplastic materials. Mechanical Technology and Engineering Insights, 2(1), 10–27. https://mtei.reapress.com/journal/article/view/30
Patel, A. D., Schyns, Z. O. G., Franklin, T. W., & Shaver, M. P. (2024). Defining quality by quantifying degradation in the mechanical recycling of polyethylene. Nature Communications, 15, 8733. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-52856-8
Pradhan, S., Entsminger, E., Mohammadabadi, M., Seale, D., & Ragon, K. (2024). Evaluation of rice husk composite boards prepared using different adhesives and processing methods. BioResources, 19(1), 595–604. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.19.1.595-604
Rahmadini, S., Ahmad, I., & Abdullah, I. (2011). Effect of rice husk surface modification by liquid epoxidized natural rubber (LENR) on the mechanical properties of NR/HDPE reinforced rice husk composites. Sains Malaysiana, 40(7), 749–756.
Reinecke, H., & Navarro, R. (2019). How to control migration of slip agents in polyethylene films. Plastics Engineering, 75(3), e003620.
Rojas-Lema, S., Lascano, D., Ivorra-Martinez, J., Gómez-Caturla, J., Balart, R., & García-García, D. (2021). Manufacturing and characterization of high-density polyethylene composites with active fillers from persimmon peel flour with improved antioxidant activity and hydrophobicity. Macromolecular Materials and Engineering, 306(11), 2100430. https://doi.org/10.1002/mame.202100430
Rosli, N. A., & Ahmad, I. (2021). Mechanical properties of recycled plastics. In Recent developments in plastic recycling (pp. 239–258). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68238-5_12
Smith, R., Johnson, T., & Patel, M. (2020). Polyethylene-based polymer composites: Structure, properties, and applications. Polymer Composites, 41(12), 4820–4832.
Smith, R., Patel, M., & Jones, T. (2020). Degradation behavior of polyethylene-based polymer composites under environmental exposure: Microstructural changes and water absorption. Polymer Composites, 41(12), 4820–4832.
Suhot, M. A., Hassan, M. Z., Aziz, S. A., & Daud, M. Y. M. (2021). Recent progress of rice husk reinforced polymer composites: A review. Polymers, 13(15), 2391. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13152391
Suryadi, D., Saputra, H., & Sari, R. (2020). Effect of alkali treatment on rice husk fiber reinforced polyethylene composites: Mechanical properties and water absorption behavior. Journal of Natural Fibers, 17(8), 1123–1135.
Tutov, S. V., Vernigorov, K. B., Abzal’dinov, Kh. S., Kazakov, Yu. M., & Stoyanov, O. V. (2025). Application of maleic anhydride-modified polyethylene: A review. Polymer Science, Series D, 18(4), 351–360.
Vázquez Fletes, R. C., & Rodrigue, D. (2021). Effect of wood fiber surface treatment on the properties of recycled HDPE/maple fiber composites. Journal of Composites Science, 5(7), 177. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5070177
Wang, L., Guo, Y., Chen, Y., Chen, T., Zhu, S., Zhang, T., & Liu, S. (2018). Enhanced mechanical and water absorption properties of rice husk-derived nano-SiO₂ reinforced PHBV composites. Polymers, 10(9), 1022. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10091022
ASTM International. (2014). ASTM D638-14: Standard test method for tensile properties of plastics. https://doi.org/10.1520/D0638-14
ASTM International. (2020). ASTM D792-20: Standard test methods for density and specific gravity (relative density) of plastics by displacement. https://doi.org/10.1520/D0792-20
Ayana, K. D., Ali, A. Y., & Ha, C.-S. (2024). Wood polymer composites based on the recycled polyethylene blends from municipal waste and Ethiopian indigenous bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica) fibrous particles through chemical coupling crosslinking. Polymers, 16(21), 2982. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16212982
Bachtiar, D., Mohammed, A. A., Palanisamy, S., Imran, A. I., Siregar, J. P., Mat Rejab, M. R., Syaubari, Cionita, T., Fitriyana, D. F., Al-Farraj, S. A., Almansour, M. I., & Ma, Q. (2025). Effect of alkaline treatment on the thermal and mechanical properties of sugar palm fibre reinforced thermoplastic polyurethane composites. Scientific Reports, 15, 14085. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-99227-x
Badamasi, M., Dantsoho, M., Aliyu, K., & Tsoho, K. (2025). Strategic orientations, digital openness, and SME performance in Nigeria: A conceptual review of the moderated mediation effect of digital literacy. British Journal of Management and Business Research, 12(3), 45–60.
Bisht, N., & Gope, P. C. (2020). Effect of rice husk (treated/untreated) and rice husk ash on fracture toughness of epoxy bio-composite. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 29(1), 177–185. https://doi.org/10.1515/jmbm-2020-0018
Bisht, N., Gope, P. C., & Rani, N. (2020). Rice husk as a fibre in composites: A review. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 29(1), 147–162. https://doi.org/10.1515/jmbm-2020-0015
Chen, R., Salleh, M. N., Ghani, M. H. A., Ahmad, S., & Gan, S. (2015). Biocomposites based on rice husk flour and recycled polymer blend: Effects of interfacial modification and high fibre loading. BioResources, 10(4), 6872–6885. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.10.4.6872-6885
Chris-Okafor, P. U., Okonkwo, C. C., & Ohaeke, M. S. (2018). Reinforcement of high-density polyethylene with snail shell powder: Mechanical and morphological properties. American Journal of Polymer Science, 8(1), 17–21.
Dass, P. M., Bifam, M., Alheri, A., & Atoshi, M. A. (2016). Water absorption, flammability, hardness and morphology tests on composite prepared from high density polyethylene films/Doka wood dust particles. Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 17(5), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.9734/BJAST/2016/28784
Dev, B., Rahman, M. A., Alam, M. R., Repon, M. R., & Nawab, Y. (2023). Mapping the progress in natural fiber reinforced composites: Preparation, mechanical properties, and applications. Polymer Composites, 44(7), 3748–3788. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.27376
Din, S. N., Bokhari, J. A., Rosni, N., Hashim, F., & Ahmad, Z. (2023). Comparative study of mechanical and physical properties of rice husk filled polyethylene waste composites. Scientific Research Journal, 20(2), 101–113. https://doi.org/10.24191/srj.v20i2.23506
Ewulonu, C. M. (2009). Studies on properties of oil palm fruit bunch fibre filled high density polyethylene [M.Sc. thesis, FUTO, Nigeria].
Fang, X., Tao, X., Xie, Y., Xu, W., Guo, H., & Liu, Y. (2025). The effect of alkali treatment on the mechanical strength, thermal stability, and water absorption of bamboo fiber/PLA composites. Forests, 16(1), 123. https://doi.org/10.3390/f16010123
Ficici, F., & Kaya, A. M. (2025). Investigation of tribological behavior of rice husk reinforced high density polyethylene (HDPE) biocomposite. Materials Testing, 67(12), 1972–1984. https://doi.org/10.1515/mt-2025-0222
Gopinath, P., Kumar, R., & Senthilkumar, S. (2023). Effect of alkali treatment on rice husk fiber reinforced polymer composites: Mechanical properties and water absorption behavior. Journal of Fibers and Polymer Composites, 2(2), 145–156.
Gupta, A., Kataria, P., & Sharma, V. (2025). Physical, chemical composition and morphological analysis of rice husk reinforced epoxy composites. Oxford Open Materials Science, 5(1), itaf012. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfmat/itaf012
Haruna, B., Abdullahi, I., & Abdullahi, U. (2025). A comprehensive review of performance enhancement of hybrid rice husk polymer resin biocomposite. Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Engineering and Architecture, 16, 1309–1321. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43995-025-00167-4
Jagadeesh, P., Puttegowda, M., Rangappa, S. M., & Siengchin, S. (2021). A review on extraction, chemical treatment, characterization of natural fibers and its composites for potential applications. Polymer Composites, 42(12), 6239–6264. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.26312
Jia, Y., Chen, J., Asahara, H., Asoh, T.-A., & Uyama, H. (2019). Polymer surface oxidation by light-activated chlorine dioxide radical for metal–plastics adhesion. ACS Applied Polymer Materials, 1(12), 3452–3458. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsapm.9b00871
Jones, T., & Patel, M. (2019). Environmental degradation of polyethylene composites: Structural changes and water absorption behavior. Journal of Polymer Research, 26(8), 215.
Kassim Shaari, N. Z., Taha, A. R., & Hanipah, S. H. (2020). Composite from high density polyethylene (HDPE) reinforced with rice husks (Oryza sativa): Preparation and mechanical property. Malaysian Journal of Chemical Engineering and Technology, 3(2), 25–29. https://ir.uitm.edu.my/id/eprint/43487
Kaur, P., Kalpana, Kumar, S., Kumar, A., & Kumar, A. (2023). Effect of various sodium hydroxide treatment parameters on the adsorption efficiency of rice husk for removal of methylene blue from water. Emergent Materials, 6, 1809–1824. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42247-023-00574-0
Kida, T., Janchai, K., Tokumitsu, K., & Yamaguchi, M. (2023). Flow-induced crystallization behavior of high-density polyethylene evaluated by Rheo-Raman spectroscopic system. Polymer Journal, 55(11), 1141–1150. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41428-023-00821-5
Kumar, R., Singh, S., & Singh, T. (2018). Effect of alkali treatment on mechanical and water absorption properties of natural fibre reinforced polymer composites: A review. Materials Today: Proceedings, 5(2), 3698–3703.
Luna, I. Z., Dam, K. C., Chowdhury, A. M. S., Gafur, M. A., & Khan, R. A. (2015). Mechanical and spectroscopic properties of rice husk reinforced polypropylene composites: Effect of sodium hydroxide. International Journal of Composite Materials, 5(6), 162–166.
Mihelčič, M., Oseli, A., Huskić, M., & Slemenik Perše, L. (2022). Influence of stabilization additive on rheological, thermal and mechanical properties of recycled polypropylene. Polymers, 14(24), 5438. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14245438
Morales, M. A., Atencio Martinez, C. L., Maranon, A., Hernandez, C., Michaud, V., & Porras, A. (2021). Development and characterization of rice husk and recycled polypropylene composite filaments for 3D printing. Polymers, 13(7), 1067. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13071067
Mulenga, T. K., Rangappa, S. M., & Siengchin, S. (2025). Natural fiber composites under impact loading: A critical review. Express Polymer Letters, 19(5), 470–493. https://doi.org/10.3144/expresspolymlett.2025.35
Nurhayati, C., & Susanto, T. (2020). The effects of rice husk ashes filled recycled polyethylene composites towards physical, mechanical properties and its degradation characteristics. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 924(1), 012029. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/924/1/012029
Nuzaimah, M., Sapuan, S. M., Nadlene, R., & Jawaid, M. (2020). Sodium hydroxide treatment of waste rubber crumb and its effects on properties of unsaturated polyester composites. Applied Sciences, 10(11), 3913. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10113913
Okon Wilson, E., & Amgbari, C. O. (2024). Comparative evaluation of mechanical properties, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis, and water holding capacity of recycled and virgin high-density polyethylene (HDPE) plastics: A study on the morphological and physical characteristics of thermoplastic materials. Mechanical Technology and Engineering Insights, 2(1), 10–27. https://mtei.reapress.com/journal/article/view/30
Patel, A. D., Schyns, Z. O. G., Franklin, T. W., & Shaver, M. P. (2024). Defining quality by quantifying degradation in the mechanical recycling of polyethylene. Nature Communications, 15, 8733. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-52856-8
Pradhan, S., Entsminger, E., Mohammadabadi, M., Seale, D., & Ragon, K. (2024). Evaluation of rice husk composite boards prepared using different adhesives and processing methods. BioResources, 19(1), 595–604. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.19.1.595-604
Rahmadini, S., Ahmad, I., & Abdullah, I. (2011). Effect of rice husk surface modification by liquid epoxidized natural rubber (LENR) on the mechanical properties of NR/HDPE reinforced rice husk composites. Sains Malaysiana, 40(7), 749–756.
Reinecke, H., & Navarro, R. (2019). How to control migration of slip agents in polyethylene films. Plastics Engineering, 75(3), e003620.
Rojas-Lema, S., Lascano, D., Ivorra-Martinez, J., Gómez-Caturla, J., Balart, R., & García-García, D. (2021). Manufacturing and characterization of high-density polyethylene composites with active fillers from persimmon peel flour with improved antioxidant activity and hydrophobicity. Macromolecular Materials and Engineering, 306(11), 2100430. https://doi.org/10.1002/mame.202100430
Rosli, N. A., & Ahmad, I. (2021). Mechanical properties of recycled plastics. In Recent developments in plastic recycling (pp. 239–258). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68238-5_12
Smith, R., Johnson, T., & Patel, M. (2020). Polyethylene-based polymer composites: Structure, properties, and applications. Polymer Composites, 41(12), 4820–4832.
Smith, R., Patel, M., & Jones, T. (2020). Degradation behavior of polyethylene-based polymer composites under environmental exposure: Microstructural changes and water absorption. Polymer Composites, 41(12), 4820–4832.
Suhot, M. A., Hassan, M. Z., Aziz, S. A., & Daud, M. Y. M. (2021). Recent progress of rice husk reinforced polymer composites: A review. Polymers, 13(15), 2391. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13152391
Suryadi, D., Saputra, H., & Sari, R. (2020). Effect of alkali treatment on rice husk fiber reinforced polyethylene composites: Mechanical properties and water absorption behavior. Journal of Natural Fibers, 17(8), 1123–1135.
Tutov, S. V., Vernigorov, K. B., Abzal’dinov, Kh. S., Kazakov, Yu. M., & Stoyanov, O. V. (2025). Application of maleic anhydride-modified polyethylene: A review. Polymer Science, Series D, 18(4), 351–360.
Vázquez Fletes, R. C., & Rodrigue, D. (2021). Effect of wood fiber surface treatment on the properties of recycled HDPE/maple fiber composites. Journal of Composites Science, 5(7), 177. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5070177
Wang, L., Guo, Y., Chen, Y., Chen, T., Zhu, S., Zhang, T., & Liu, S. (2018). Enhanced mechanical and water absorption properties of rice husk-derived nano-SiO₂ reinforced PHBV composites. Polymers, 10(9), 1022. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10091022