Social Media, Religious Extremism, and Ethical Responsibility in Nigeria: Balancing Free Speech and Moral Consequences.
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164-185
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Mar 23, 2026
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10.58578/kijst.v3i1.9356
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Authors:
Oyebanji Israel Temitope1, Oyunwola Taiwo Olayinka2, Ogunbiyi David Oluwabukunmi3 
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Abstract
This study examines the relationship between social media, religious extremism, and moral responsibility in Nigeria, with particular attention to the dual role of digital platforms as spaces for free expression and as channels for the dissemination of harmful ideologies. Against the backdrop of a communication landscape increasingly shaped by social media, the study addresses the rise of hate speech, misinformation, and the radicalization of vulnerable groups, especially within Nigeria’s context of deep ethnic and religious divisions and persistent security threats from extremist groups such as Boko Haram. The study seeks to explore how free expression can be protected while addressing the ethical consequences of digital communication and the underlying drivers of radicalization. Drawing on evidence from academic literature, policy texts, and illustrative case examples, the analysis shows that weak content moderation systems, legal and regulatory gaps, and enduring socio-economic grievances facilitate the spread of extremist narratives online. The study further highlights the roles of state institutions, technology companies, religious leaders, and the wider public in mitigating these risks. It concludes that unchecked online discourse can intensify extremist beliefs, fuel violence, and undermine social cohesion, thereby necessitating stronger multi-stakeholder cooperation to develop ethical, context-sensitive responses that safeguard democratic freedoms while promoting religious peace and national stability.
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Temitope, O. I., Olayinka, O. T., & Oluwabukunmi, O. D. (2026). Social Media, Religious Extremism, and Ethical Responsibility in Nigeria: Balancing Free Speech and Moral Consequences. Kwaghe International Journal of Sciences and Technology, 3(1), 164-185. https://doi.org/10.58578/kijst.v3i1.9356
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
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de Jong, L., de Bruin, S., Knoop, J., & van Vliet, J. (2021). Understanding land-use change conflict: A systematic review of case studies. Journal of Land Use Science, 16(3), 223–239. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1747423X.2021.1933226
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Fernandez, M., & Alani, H. (2021). Artificial intelligence and online extremism: Challenges and opportunities. In J. McDaniel & K. Pease (Eds.), Predictive policing and artificial intelligence (pp. 132–162). Routledge.
Ganesh, B., & Bright, J. (2020). Countering extremists on social media: Challenges for strategic communication and content moderation. Policy & Internet, 12(1), 6–19.
Goshen, Z., & Steel, R. S. (2022). Barbarians inside the gates: Raiders, activists, and the risk of mistargeting. Yale Law Journal, 132(2), 411–486. https://yalelawjournal.org/article/barbarians-inside-the-gates
Gradoń, K. (2020). Crime in the time of the plague: Fake news pandemic and the challenges to law-enforcement and intelligence community. Society Register, 4(2), 133–148.
Haruna, S. M. (2025). Sectarianism and fragmentation in the Muslim world: A Qur'anic and Hadith perspective on the causes, consequences, and path to unity. Dirasah International Journal of Islamic Studies, 3(1), 42–63.
Ilori, T. (2024). A postcolonial legal critique of online expression in Africa. Journal of African Law, 68(3), 283–300. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-law/article/postcolonial-legal-critique-of-online-expression-in-africa/07E56489C75923BEC9D1D9F789BA8777
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Kaba, A. J. (2022). The numbers and percentages of Christians and Muslims in Africa, 2020. International Journal of African Catholicism (IJAC), 12(1), 18–40.
Kaitatzi-Whitlock, S. (2021). Toward a digital civil society: Digital ethics through communication education. Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society, 19(2), 187–206.
Kulenović, E. (2023). Should democracies ban hate speech? Hate speech laws and counterspeech. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 26(4), 511–532.
Liman, M. U., & Muhammad, J. (2020). Human security questions and the impacts of Boko-Haram insurgency in North Eastern Nigeria. International Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences, 18(4), 97–122.
Lowe, D. (2022). Far-right extremism: Is it legitimate freedom of expression, hate crime, or terrorism? Terrorism and Political Violence, 34(7), 1433–1453.
Malefakis, M. A. (2021). Nigeria: Social media dynamics in Boko Haram’s terrorist insurgence. In L. Schirch (Ed.), Social media impacts on conflict and democracy: The techtonic shift (pp. 161–171). Routledge.
Melnychuk, O., Opolska, N., Ostapenko, O., Lapshyn, S., & Ishchuk, A. (2024). Utilising mediation for conflict resolution: Insights and future directions. Salud, Ciencia y Tecnología-Serie de Conferencias, 3, 11–43.
Meserve, S. A., & Pemstein, D. (2020). Terrorism and internet censorship. Journal of Peace Research, 57(6), 752–763.
Mhajne, A. (2025). Democratic backsliding, social media, and surveillance of the Palestinian community in Israel since October 7, 2023. Journal of Human Rights, 24(1), 132–150.
Michalski, J. H. (2024). Anti-Muslim hate crimes in the United States and Canada: Visibility and the minority-group threat thesis. In J. Hawdon & M. Costello (Eds.), Research handbook on hate and hate crimes in society (pp. 101–124). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Mohyeddin, Z. (2024). The role of civil society in democratic governance. Journal of Political Stability Archive, 2(3), 61–74.
Montasari, R. (2024). The impact of technology on radicalisation to violent extremism and terrorism in the contemporary security landscape. In Cyberspace, cyberterrorism and the international security in the fourth industrial revolution: Threats, assessment and responses (pp. 109–133). Springer.
Muhaimin, A., Mustafa, A., & Khan, M. H. (2023). The complex relationship between religion and hate: A review of extremist approaches and counter narratives. Journal of Positive School Psychology, 7(5), 1104–1109.
Mwangi, O. G. (2023). Radicalisation, counter-radicalisation, and governance in fragile states. In J. Busher, L. Malkki, & S. Marsden (Eds.), The Routledge handbook on radicalisation and countering radicalisation (pp. 514–527). Routledge.
Nlewem, O. D., & Akhagba, O. (2024). The ethno-religious complications of farmer-herder conflict in contemporary Nigeria. Hemispheres: Studies on Cultures and Societies, 39, 47–63.
Nnorom, K. (2021). Boko Haram and rising developmental crises in Nigeria: Overview and sociological implications. International Journal of African Renaissance Studies—Multi-, Inter- and Transdisciplinarity, 16(1), 82–99.
Nwankwo, C. F., Ayadiuno, R. U., Ali, A. N., & Madu, I. A. (2020). Farmer-herder conflict: The politics of media discourse in Nigeria. PONTE, 76(1), 191–221.
Oguejiofor, P. O., & Agbaenyi, A. N. (2023). Globalisation and transnational terrorism in West Africa: Islamic State, West African Province (ISWAP) dimension. Nnamdi Azikiwe Journal of Political Science, 8(3), 1–15.
Ogunbanjo, B. (2024). A critical review of democracy and the aftermath of the 2023 general elections in Nigeria. Integral Research, 1(7), 137–177.
Öhman, C., & Aggarwal, N. (2020). What if Facebook goes down? Ethical and legal considerations for the demise of big tech. Internet Policy Review, 9(3). https://policyreview.info/articles/analysis/what-if-facebook-goes-down-ethical-and-legal-considerations-demise-big-tech
Oyebanji, I. T. (2024). Perceptions of artificial insemination among members of the Christ Apostolic Church, Oke-Ife DCC Headquarters, Ibadan: A religio-ethical analysis. MAHABBAH: Journal of Religion and Education, 5(2), 89–102. https://mahabbah.org/e-journal/index.php/mjre/article/view/127
Oyebanji, I. T. (2024). Sociological implications of faith-healing and herbal-therapy applications in Christ Apostolic Church. Corpus Intellectual, 3(1), 3–5.
Oyebanji, I. T. (2025a). The complex interplay between religion and healthcare in Nigeria: Historical roots, current dynamics, and future implications. Kwaghe International Journal of Arts, Humanities and Religious Studies, 2(2), 99–129. https://doi.org/10.58578/kijahrs.v2i2.6812
Oyebanji, I. T. (2025b). Flooding as a natural and moral evil: A philosophical and ethical analysis of the Ogunpa floods in Ibadan, Nigeria. MAHABBAH: Journal of Religion and Education, 4(2), 85–99.
Oyebanji, I. T., & Oyunwola, T. O. (2024b). Religious leaders as peacebuilders: Assessing the role of Christian and Muslim clergy in conflict prevention in Southwest Nigeria. MAHABBAH: Journal of Religion and Education, 5(1), 16–31. https://e-journal.mahabbah.org/index.php/mjre/article/view/124
Oyebanji, I. T., Ogunbiyi, D. O., Segun, A. I., & Oyunwola, T. O. (2025b). Name change and its religio-ethical implications among the Yoruba. African Journal of Religious and Theological Studies, 4(1), 18–33. https://afropolitanjournals.com/index.php/ajrts/article/view/851
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