Assessment of Open Defecation in Primary Schools in Sokoto State, Nigeria
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10.58578/ijemt.v2i2.3412
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Abstract
Open defecation is a threat to public health and the education of children at schools. This study assessed open defecation among primary schools in Sokoto Nigeria using a survey study. 300 questionnaires were filled during a random visit of primary schools in the Sokoto. The possible causes/ factors that led to open defecation in primary schools in Sokoto, Nigeria are: absence of water supply (40.0%), dilapidated toilets (40.0%), and untidy toilets; therewith, no school was found without toilet (0.0%). Regards to practice of open defecation in primary schools in Sokoto, Nigeria; in majority of the schools visited (80.0%), there was presence of feces in some parts of the schools’ surroundings, and minority of the schools (20.0%) had no feces on their surroundings when visited. Mostly the feces found was dry (80.0%), and few are fresh (20.0%). Majority (50.0%) of the schools had no any water supply in their premises, 25.0% had protected water supply, and 25.0% had unprotected water supply at the premises. Possible solutions to control open defecation among students of primary schools were suggested: the majority of the respondents (41.7%) suggested provision of enough toilets, and guidance/ health education (33.3%); and minority among them (25.0%) suggested provision of clean water supply. Governments should provide enough water supply, enough toilets and related hardware, and there is need for cleaners and proper health ed8cation of students/ pupils on importance of hygiene and sanitation.
Keywords:
Open Defecation; Education; Primary School; Toilet; Diarrhea
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Abdulkarim, H. M., Abubakar, J., & Muhammad, A. (2024). Assessment of Open Defecation in Primary Schools in Sokoto State, Nigeria. International Journal of Education, Management, and Technology, 2(2), 95-108. https://doi.org/10.58578/ijemt.v2i2.3412
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
References
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Abubakar, A.U., & Raji, I.A. (2021). Status of public primary schools: Safety, health service provision and environmental health facilities in Sokoto Metropolis, Northwestern Nigeria. Asian Journal of Medicine and Health,19 (11): 22-31.
Adjibolosoo, S.V.K., Dzeagu-Kudjodji, J., Nanor, J.N., Agbeko, I.P., Amin, C. (2019). What are the conditions of toilet facilities used in basic schools? Insights from some selected basic schools in the Eastern and Volta Regions of Ghana. International Journal of Academic Research and Reflection, 7(5), 1-27.
Amadi, C.O.A., Yakubu, M.B., Azuamah, Y.C., Amadi, A.N., & Ukah, A. (2020). Assessment of sanitation practices of primary school pupils in Abuja, Nigeria. International Journal of Research and Review, 7(4),413-417.
Anyarayor B.K., Alhassan, A., & Faisal, A.M. (2019). Access to improved sanitation facilities and female school attendance: a study of Savelugu Municipality of Ghana. Journal of Arts and Humanities, 8(1), 56-67.
Azuogu, V.C., Ilo, C.I., Nwimo, I.O., Azuogu, N. B., & Onwunaka, C. (2016). Extent of handwashing practice among secondary school students in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. International Journal of Education, Learning, and Development, 4, (7);11-22.
Bello, M.B., Daramola, D.S., Yusuf, A., & Amali, I.O., (2017). An eval__uation of access to universal basic education in sokoto state, Nigeria. Asia Pacific Journal of educators and Education, 32, 61-72.
Bello, Y.S., Adamu, A.A., Sarkingobir, Y., & Maikwai M. (2022). Negative effects of open defecation on school education in Nigeria. Global Journal Research in Medical Sciences, 2(2),1-12.
Busienei, P.J., Ogendi, G.M., Mokua, M.A. (2019). Open defecation practices in Lodwar, Kenya; A mixed-methods research. Environmental Health Insights, 13, 1-13.
Charles, O. (2021). The menace of open defecation practice among communities in Nigeria: a call for public health education. International Journal of innovative Research and Advanced Studies, 8(3), 1-4.
Dahal, K.R., Adhikari, B.Y., & Tamang, J. (2014). Sanitation coverage and impact of open defecation free (ODF) zone with special reference to Nepal: A review. International Journal of Engineering and Applications, 4(8), 118-128.
Elhassan, E.E.E., Ali, M.H. M., Ahmed, H.R.M., Osman, O.B., & Ahmed, W.A.M. (2015). Water supply and basic sanitation in primary schools in Khartoum, Sudan. Indian Journal of Medical Research and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2(8),1-8.
Etor, C.R., Mbon, U.F., & Ekanem, E.E. (2013). Primary education as a foundation for qualitative higher education in Nigeria. Journal of Education and Learning, 2(2), 155-164.http://doi.10.5539?jel.v2np155.
Gado, M.A., & Alkammawa, H.L. (2017). Primary education as a means of achieving sustainable development; An assessment of Universal Basic education(UBE)program in Nigeria. Saudi Journal of Humanities and Social sciences, 2(9):790-795.
Jiya, F.B., Jiya, N.M., Ibitoye, P.K., Umar, K. A., Adamu, A., & Isezuo, K.O. (2020). School health services in Sokoto town, Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences, 19(4):44-50.
Kanayochukwu, E., Dogo, B., Akinmumi, O.O., Oluwafemi, A.T., Ajibuah, J., Mwanret, D., & Queen, S., (2020). Assessment of the conditions of educational facilities in selected local government areas in Kaduna state, Nigeria. Researches Reviews of the Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management, 49(1):81-98.
Karkarna, M.Z., & Adamu, M. (2021). Assessment of fecal sludge management in Nguru Town, Yobe state, Northeastern Nigeria. UMYU Journal of Microbiology Research, 6(1), 1-10.
Kartal., H., Balantekin, Y., & Bilgin, Y. (2016). The importance of early childhood education and school starting age in the reading-writing learning process. Participatory Educational Research, 3(1), 79-101. http://dx.doi.org/10.17275/per.16.05.3.1.
Kasarawa, A.B. Salau I.A., & Shehu K., (2017). Microbial quality of nonregistered table water sold in Sokoto Metropolis Northwestern Nigeria. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 6(03): 007-011.
Magami, I.M. and Ibrahim, S. (2016). Gender disparity in water policy decision-making and status of water supply in Sokoto, North-Western Nigeria. The Journal of Social Sciences, 2(4):77-81.
Makhfudli, Rachmawati, P.D., & Andini, S.A. (2017). Factors related to open defecation behavior among school-age children in West Lombok. Jurnal Ners, 12(1), 119-125.
Mensah, A. A., Adei, D., Duah, S.O., & Asibey, M.O. (2022). Operation and sustainability of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) in schools: evidence from a vulnerable and deprived area in Ghana. Environmental Health, 9,1-19.
Olatunji, R.W., & Thanny, N.T. (2020). Availability and adequacy of WASH facilities in secondary schools in Lagos state, Nigeria. E3S Web of Conferences, 211(01023):1-8. Doi: http://10.1051/e3sconf/202021101023.
Olukami, D. (2013). Assessment of WASH program in public secondary schools in Southern-Western Nigeria. ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 8(3), 222-228.
Omolade, O.O. (2018). Of parasites and their hosts. Biomedical Journal of Scientific and Technical Research, 12(1),8933-8935.
Salihu, M., Shawai, S.A., Shamsuddin, I.M. (2017). Effect and control of water pollution a panacea to national Development. International Journal of Environmental Chemistry, 1(2), 23-27.
Sarkingobir, Y., AI Umar, Waheed, S.A., Miya, Y.Y., Rose Livinus, Sahabi,M.,& Salah, N.M. (2023). Analysis of heavy metals content in well water and it's predictive insights for students wellbeing in Almajiri Schools, Sokoto East, Nigeria. International Journal of Research in STEM Education (IJRSE),5(1),17-28.
Sifawa, B.U., & Muhammad, A. (2014). Improving rural water supply and sanitation through community participation and management for diseases prevention in Sokoto state. International of Comparative Studies in International Relations and Development, 3(1),123-131.
Sridhar, M.K.C., Okareh, O.T., & Mustapha, M. (2020). Assessment of knowledge, attitudes, and practices on water, sanitation, and hygiene in Some selected LGAS in Kaduna state, NorthWestern Nigeria. Journal of Environmental and Public health, 2020(6532512), 1-12.
Umar, A.I. & Sarkingobir, Y. (2024). Significance of dietary iron for human biological system and brain development. Kaunia: Integration and Interconnection of Islam and Science Journal,20(1), 1-10.
Umar, A.I., Labbo, A. M., Sumayya, A.A. Zainab, H.B., Sarkingobir, Y. Umar, A.I., & Dikko, M. (2021). Effects of Some Goitrogens on Iodine distributions in Pipe-borne Water, Borehole Water and Well Water of Sokoto State, Nigeria. International journal of Pure and Applied Science 21 (9), 29 – 40.
Umar, AI., Sarkingobir, Y. & Tukur, U. (2024). Quantification of iodine in salt, foods; and determination of knowledge and pattern of consumption of iodine containing food materials in Sokoto State, Nigeria. Kalasin University Journal of Science Technology and Innovation, 3 (1), 1-15.
van Seventer, J.M., & Hochberg, N.S. (2017). Principles of infectious diseases: Transmission, diagnosis, prevention, and control. International Encyclopedia of Public Health, 2(6), 23-39.
Wada, O.Z., Olawale, D.B., Aladeji, E.O., Amusa, A.O., & Oloruntola, E.O. (2022). School water, sanitation, and hygiene inequalities; A bane of sustainable development goal six in Nigeria. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 113,622-635. http://dpoi.org/10.17269/s41997-022-00633-9.
Winter, J.C., Damstadt, G.L., Lee, S.J., & Davis, J. (2021). The potential of school-based WASH programming to support children as agents of change in rural Zambian households. BMC Public Health, 21(1812), 1-13.
Xuan, L.T., Hoat, L.N., Rheinlander, T., Dalsgaard, A., Konrasdsen, F. (2012). Sanitation behavior among school-children in a multi-ethnic area of Northern rural Vietnam. BMC Public Health, 12(140), 1-11.
Yahaya, T. Doherty, V.F. Akinola, O.S. & Shamsudden, A. (2019). Heavy metal profiles and microbiological counts of selected sachet water brands in Birnin Kebbi Metropolis, Nigeria. Ife Journal of Science, 21(1), 229-234.
Yamma, A.M., & Izom, D.J. (2018). Education policy in Nigeria and the genesis of universal basic education (UBE), 1999-2018. Global Journal of Political Science and Administration, 6(3),15-32.
Yarima, S.A., Maishanu, S.Z., & Yarima, U.A. (2021). Knowledge, attitude and practice of users towards water usage in IUIU Main Campus, Mbale. International Journal of Health and Pharmaceutical Research, 6(2), 44-51.
Abubakar, A.U., & Raji, I.A. (2021). Status of public primary schools: Safety, health service provision and environmental health facilities in Sokoto Metropolis, Northwestern Nigeria. Asian Journal of Medicine and Health,19 (11): 22-31.
Adjibolosoo, S.V.K., Dzeagu-Kudjodji, J., Nanor, J.N., Agbeko, I.P., Amin, C. (2019). What are the conditions of toilet facilities used in basic schools? Insights from some selected basic schools in the Eastern and Volta Regions of Ghana. International Journal of Academic Research and Reflection, 7(5), 1-27.
Amadi, C.O.A., Yakubu, M.B., Azuamah, Y.C., Amadi, A.N., & Ukah, A. (2020). Assessment of sanitation practices of primary school pupils in Abuja, Nigeria. International Journal of Research and Review, 7(4),413-417.
Anyarayor B.K., Alhassan, A., & Faisal, A.M. (2019). Access to improved sanitation facilities and female school attendance: a study of Savelugu Municipality of Ghana. Journal of Arts and Humanities, 8(1), 56-67.
Azuogu, V.C., Ilo, C.I., Nwimo, I.O., Azuogu, N. B., & Onwunaka, C. (2016). Extent of handwashing practice among secondary school students in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. International Journal of Education, Learning, and Development, 4, (7);11-22.
Bello, M.B., Daramola, D.S., Yusuf, A., & Amali, I.O., (2017). An eval__uation of access to universal basic education in sokoto state, Nigeria. Asia Pacific Journal of educators and Education, 32, 61-72.
Bello, Y.S., Adamu, A.A., Sarkingobir, Y., & Maikwai M. (2022). Negative effects of open defecation on school education in Nigeria. Global Journal Research in Medical Sciences, 2(2),1-12.
Busienei, P.J., Ogendi, G.M., Mokua, M.A. (2019). Open defecation practices in Lodwar, Kenya; A mixed-methods research. Environmental Health Insights, 13, 1-13.
Charles, O. (2021). The menace of open defecation practice among communities in Nigeria: a call for public health education. International Journal of innovative Research and Advanced Studies, 8(3), 1-4.
Dahal, K.R., Adhikari, B.Y., & Tamang, J. (2014). Sanitation coverage and impact of open defecation free (ODF) zone with special reference to Nepal: A review. International Journal of Engineering and Applications, 4(8), 118-128.
Elhassan, E.E.E., Ali, M.H. M., Ahmed, H.R.M., Osman, O.B., & Ahmed, W.A.M. (2015). Water supply and basic sanitation in primary schools in Khartoum, Sudan. Indian Journal of Medical Research and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2(8),1-8.
Etor, C.R., Mbon, U.F., & Ekanem, E.E. (2013). Primary education as a foundation for qualitative higher education in Nigeria. Journal of Education and Learning, 2(2), 155-164.http://doi.10.5539?jel.v2np155.
Gado, M.A., & Alkammawa, H.L. (2017). Primary education as a means of achieving sustainable development; An assessment of Universal Basic education(UBE)program in Nigeria. Saudi Journal of Humanities and Social sciences, 2(9):790-795.
Jiya, F.B., Jiya, N.M., Ibitoye, P.K., Umar, K. A., Adamu, A., & Isezuo, K.O. (2020). School health services in Sokoto town, Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences, 19(4):44-50.
Kanayochukwu, E., Dogo, B., Akinmumi, O.O., Oluwafemi, A.T., Ajibuah, J., Mwanret, D., & Queen, S., (2020). Assessment of the conditions of educational facilities in selected local government areas in Kaduna state, Nigeria. Researches Reviews of the Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management, 49(1):81-98.
Karkarna, M.Z., & Adamu, M. (2021). Assessment of fecal sludge management in Nguru Town, Yobe state, Northeastern Nigeria. UMYU Journal of Microbiology Research, 6(1), 1-10.
Kartal., H., Balantekin, Y., & Bilgin, Y. (2016). The importance of early childhood education and school starting age in the reading-writing learning process. Participatory Educational Research, 3(1), 79-101. http://dx.doi.org/10.17275/per.16.05.3.1.
Kasarawa, A.B. Salau I.A., & Shehu K., (2017). Microbial quality of nonregistered table water sold in Sokoto Metropolis Northwestern Nigeria. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 6(03): 007-011.
Magami, I.M. and Ibrahim, S. (2016). Gender disparity in water policy decision-making and status of water supply in Sokoto, North-Western Nigeria. The Journal of Social Sciences, 2(4):77-81.
Makhfudli, Rachmawati, P.D., & Andini, S.A. (2017). Factors related to open defecation behavior among school-age children in West Lombok. Jurnal Ners, 12(1), 119-125.
Mensah, A. A., Adei, D., Duah, S.O., & Asibey, M.O. (2022). Operation and sustainability of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) in schools: evidence from a vulnerable and deprived area in Ghana. Environmental Health, 9,1-19.
Olatunji, R.W., & Thanny, N.T. (2020). Availability and adequacy of WASH facilities in secondary schools in Lagos state, Nigeria. E3S Web of Conferences, 211(01023):1-8. Doi: http://10.1051/e3sconf/202021101023.
Olukami, D. (2013). Assessment of WASH program in public secondary schools in Southern-Western Nigeria. ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 8(3), 222-228.
Omolade, O.O. (2018). Of parasites and their hosts. Biomedical Journal of Scientific and Technical Research, 12(1),8933-8935.
Salihu, M., Shawai, S.A., Shamsuddin, I.M. (2017). Effect and control of water pollution a panacea to national Development. International Journal of Environmental Chemistry, 1(2), 23-27.
Sarkingobir, Y., AI Umar, Waheed, S.A., Miya, Y.Y., Rose Livinus, Sahabi,M.,& Salah, N.M. (2023). Analysis of heavy metals content in well water and it's predictive insights for students wellbeing in Almajiri Schools, Sokoto East, Nigeria. International Journal of Research in STEM Education (IJRSE),5(1),17-28.
Sifawa, B.U., & Muhammad, A. (2014). Improving rural water supply and sanitation through community participation and management for diseases prevention in Sokoto state. International of Comparative Studies in International Relations and Development, 3(1),123-131.
Sridhar, M.K.C., Okareh, O.T., & Mustapha, M. (2020). Assessment of knowledge, attitudes, and practices on water, sanitation, and hygiene in Some selected LGAS in Kaduna state, NorthWestern Nigeria. Journal of Environmental and Public health, 2020(6532512), 1-12.
Umar, A.I. & Sarkingobir, Y. (2024). Significance of dietary iron for human biological system and brain development. Kaunia: Integration and Interconnection of Islam and Science Journal,20(1), 1-10.
Umar, A.I., Labbo, A. M., Sumayya, A.A. Zainab, H.B., Sarkingobir, Y. Umar, A.I., & Dikko, M. (2021). Effects of Some Goitrogens on Iodine distributions in Pipe-borne Water, Borehole Water and Well Water of Sokoto State, Nigeria. International journal of Pure and Applied Science 21 (9), 29 – 40.
Umar, AI., Sarkingobir, Y. & Tukur, U. (2024). Quantification of iodine in salt, foods; and determination of knowledge and pattern of consumption of iodine containing food materials in Sokoto State, Nigeria. Kalasin University Journal of Science Technology and Innovation, 3 (1), 1-15.
van Seventer, J.M., & Hochberg, N.S. (2017). Principles of infectious diseases: Transmission, diagnosis, prevention, and control. International Encyclopedia of Public Health, 2(6), 23-39.
Wada, O.Z., Olawale, D.B., Aladeji, E.O., Amusa, A.O., & Oloruntola, E.O. (2022). School water, sanitation, and hygiene inequalities; A bane of sustainable development goal six in Nigeria. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 113,622-635. http://dpoi.org/10.17269/s41997-022-00633-9.
Winter, J.C., Damstadt, G.L., Lee, S.J., & Davis, J. (2021). The potential of school-based WASH programming to support children as agents of change in rural Zambian households. BMC Public Health, 21(1812), 1-13.
Xuan, L.T., Hoat, L.N., Rheinlander, T., Dalsgaard, A., Konrasdsen, F. (2012). Sanitation behavior among school-children in a multi-ethnic area of Northern rural Vietnam. BMC Public Health, 12(140), 1-11.
Yahaya, T. Doherty, V.F. Akinola, O.S. & Shamsudden, A. (2019). Heavy metal profiles and microbiological counts of selected sachet water brands in Birnin Kebbi Metropolis, Nigeria. Ife Journal of Science, 21(1), 229-234.
Yamma, A.M., & Izom, D.J. (2018). Education policy in Nigeria and the genesis of universal basic education (UBE), 1999-2018. Global Journal of Political Science and Administration, 6(3),15-32.
Yarima, S.A., Maishanu, S.Z., & Yarima, U.A. (2021). Knowledge, attitude and practice of users towards water usage in IUIU Main Campus, Mbale. International Journal of Health and Pharmaceutical Research, 6(2), 44-51.
